THE  UNIVERSITY 


OF  ILLINOIS 
LIBRARY 

a^o' 

G-Coo 


S:' 


m 


m 


^ i 

Return  this  book  on  or  before  the 

1 Latest  Date  stamped  below.  A 
charge  is  made  on  all  overdue 
books. 

i University  of  Illinois  Library  v 

-1 IS5 

4 

-(''  ISSo 

j 

^"T20!S: 

I 

i n 0 ^ 

Mh!  it,  " i 

n ; i 

1 apr„,  1 

1 

392 

OCT  3 0 1 

I 

997 

I 

'JBN1  ’’ 

Q99 

MAY  1 1 ■ 

933 

1 2 

?G04 

L161— H41 

'Vi 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


r.VA/. 


https://archive.org/details/beefproductionin5766ward 


^3-P 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  PUBLICATIONS. 


tlNiVERSITV  OF  til 

AUG  3 1 1916 

FARMERS’  BULLETINS 


Nos.  576-600, 


WITH  CONTENTS  AND  INDEX. 


PREPARED  UNDER  THE  SUPERVISION  OF 

JOS.  A.  ARNOLD, 

EDITOR  AND  CHIEF. 


WASHINGTON; 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1915. 


I 1 K.At. 


CONTENTS. 


^ 6 30 

Ko  5 T 6 - (J.  0 0 


I - 

"l  , 


'i 


> 

r» 

C^^ 

r 


F'armers'  Bulletin  570. — Breeds  of  Sheep  for  . e Farm. 

Introduction 

(^lasses  oi  sheep 

Middle  wooled  sheep 

Ijong  wool  breeds.. 

Fine  wool  sheep 

y Fross-bred  sheep 

Farmers'  Bulletin  577. — Growing  ICgyptian  Cotton  i.n  the  S.\lt  River 
Valley,  Arizona. 

Introduction 

Selection  of  land 

Slope  of  the  land 

Early  preparation  of  the  land 

Preparation  of  the  seed  bed 

Planting 

Early  cultivation 

Early  irrigation 

Thinning 

Late  cultivation 

Late  irrigation 

Picking 

Ginning  and  baling 

Farmers’  Bulletin  578. — The  Making  and  Feeding  of  Silage. 

Making  and  feeding  silage 

Some  points  in  favor  of  silage 

Silage  crops 

Harvesting  the  crop  and  filling  the  silo 

Total  cost  of  silage i 

Losses  of  food  material  in  the  silo 

Feeding  value  of  silage 

Silage  for  dairy  cattle 

Silage  for  horses 

Silage  for  beef  cattle 

Silage  for  the  breeding  herd 

Silage  for  stockers 

Silage  for  fattening  animals 

Rations 

Miscellaneous  considerations 

Silage  for  sheep 

Farmers’  Bulletin  579. — Crimson  Clover;  Utilization. 

Introduction 

Crimson-clover'hay 

Crimson  clover  as  a soiling  crop 

Crimson  clover  as  pasture 

Crimson  clover  as  a soil  improver 

Crimson  clover  as  a cover  crop 


Vhgt. 

S 

3 

10 

13 

16 


1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 
6 

7 

8 

1 

1 

2 

5 

12 

13 

13 

14 
17 

19 

20 
20 
21 
21 

23 

24 

1 

2 

5 

6 
7 

10 


'0  ;■■■> 


i P 


III 


IV  farmers'  bulletins,  nos.  576-600. 

Farmers’  Bulletin  580. — ^Beef  Production  in  the  South.  Page. 

The  South  as  a field  for  beef  production 1 

Pasture  lands  and  grasses. 1 

Forage  crops  and  feeds 3 

Methods  and  cost  of  raising  cattle 5 

Finishing  cattle  for  the  market ^ 6 

The  value  of  cottonseed  hulls  and  meal  as  a fattening  ration  for  beef  cattle . . 10 

Corn  silage  as  a substitute  for  cottonseed  hulls 10 

Corn  stover,  sorghum,  and  Johnson  grass  hay  versus  hulls,  for  steers 11 

Wintering  steers  preparatory  to  summer  fattening  on  pasture 12 

Fattening  steers  on  southern  pastures 13 

The  value  of  shelter  for  fattening  beef  cattle.  14 

Tick  eradication 14 

Breeds  of  cattle  adapted  to  the  South 15 

Summary 20 

Farmers’  Bulletin  581.— The  Agricultural  Outlook. 

The  world  corn  crop 1 

Corn  from  Argentina 6 

Argentine  corn 9 

The  world  oats  crop 12 

Oats  from  Canada .* 17 

Other  world  crops 18 

Argentine  beef 30 

Colonial  cotton 40 

Crop-reporting  systems  and  sources  of  crop  information  in  foreign  countries.  43 
Farmers’  Bulletin  582. — Uses  for  Chestnut  Timber  Killed  by  the  Bark 
Disease. 

The  chestnut-bark  disease - 1 

Strength  and  durability  of  disease-killed  timber 2 

Deteriorations 2 

Merchantability 3 

When  to  cut  diseased  trees 4 

How  to  manufacture  and  market  chestnut  products 6 

Relative  value  of  chestnut  products 7 

Recommendations 24 

Farmers’  Bulletin  583. — The  Common  Mole  of  the  Eastern  United 
States. 

Distribution 1 

Description 1 

Habits 2 

Runways  and  nests 2 

Active  periods 4 

Natural  enemies  and  checks 4 

Breeding  habits 5 

Trespassers 5 

Natural  food 5 

Injury  and  depredations 6 

How  to  destroy  the  mole 7 

Economic  status ^ 

Farmers’  Bulletin  584. — The  Agricultural  Outlook. 

Stocks  of  grain  on  farms  March  1 1 

Accuracy  of  estimates  of  farm  supplies  of  wheat 2 

Shipments  of  grain  out  of  counties  where  grown 3 

Pre])aring  seed  corn  for  planting 4 


CONTENTS. 


Farmers’  Bulletin  584. — The  Agricultural  Outlook — Continued.  page. 

The  preparation  of  seed  grain  for  spring  planting »j 

Wages  of  farm  labor 7 

Hours  of  farm  hired  labor 9 

Trend  of  prices  of  farm  products 10 

Value  per  acre  of  crop  production 11 

Florida  and  California  crop  report 22 

Farmers’  Bulletin  585. — Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation  of  Hens' 

. Eggs. 

Study  of  an  egg 1 

Care  of  eggs  for  hatching 1 

Period  of  incubation 3 

Time  of  the  year  to  hatch  chickens 4 

Natural  incubation 4 

Ty}3es  of  incubators 0 

Selection  of  an  incubator 8 

Incubator  cellar  or  house 9 

Setting  up  and  operating  the  incubator 9 

Moisture  and  ventilation 12 

Testing  eggs 14 

Causes  of  poor  hatches 15 

Disinfecting  and  storing  incubators > 15 

Summary 16 

Farmers’  Bulletin  586. — Collection  and  Preservation  of  Plant  M.ate- 
RiAL  FOR  Use  in  the  Study  of  Agriculture. 

Introduction 1 

VTiat  material  should  be  collected 1 

Sources  of  materials 2 

General  suggestions  for  field  work 2 

Suggestions  concerning  the  arrangement  of  materials 3 

Collection  of  plant  specimens 3 

Collection  of  seeds  and  grains - 9 

Collection  of  wood  specimens 18 

Collection  of  fungi,  lichens,  and  mosses 21 

Farmers’  Bulletin  587. — Economic  Value  of  North  American  Skunks. 

Introduction 1 

Kinds  of  skunks 2 

General  habits  of  skunks 5 

Scent  glands 6 

Breeding  habits 7 

Food  of  skunks 7 

Beneficial  habits  of  skunks 10 

Undeserved  prejudice  against  skunks 12 

Protection  of  skunks 13 

Commercial  value  of  skunks 14 

Trapping  skunks 15 

Raising  skunks  for  their  fur 16 

Summary 22 

Farmers’  Bulletin  588.— Economical  Cattle  Feeding  in  the  Corn  Belt. 

Introduction 1 

Decline  in  the  supply  of  feeder  cattle 2 

Cost  of  producing  cattle 3 

Buying  and  selling  cattle 5 

Cost  of  feeding  cattle 7 


VI  FAKMERS'  BULLETINS^  NOS.  57()-<)()(). 

Farmers’  Bulletin  588. — Economical  Cattle  Feeding  in  the  ('orn 

Belt— Continued.  r>a^f. 

Care  of  the  manure 10 

Systems  of  farming  to  maintain  soil  fertility 12 

Cattle  feeding  on  high-priced  land 12 

L^igth  of  the  fattening  period ■ 13 

Quality  of  cattle  to  use 14 

Winter  fattening 14 

Feeding  on  pasture Jo. 

Methods  adapted  to  moderate-priced  land 15 

Hogs  following  cattle 17 

Shrinkage  in  shipping  to  market , 19 

Farmers’  Bulletin  589. — Homemade  Silos. 

Introduction 1 

(General  considerations , 1 

The  concrete  silo 9 

'Phe  stave  silo 30 

The  modified  Wisconsin  silo 43 

Bills  of  materials 47 

Farmers’  Bulletin  590.^ — The  Agricultural  Outlook. 

Losses  of  live  stock .• 1 

How  to  use  anti-hog-cholera  serum 3 

Losses  of  cattle 7 

Monthly  variation  in  numbers  of  farm  animals 8 

Winter  wheat  forecast 10 

Florida  and  California  crops 10 

Louisiana  sugar  crop  of  1913 11 

Trend  of  prices  of  farm  products 12 

Farmers’  Bulletin  591. — The  ('lassification  and  Grading  op  Cotton. 

Introduction 1 

Grade  names 2 

Factors  that  influence  the  grade 3 

I’nited  States  official  cotton  grades 7 

Grade  characteristics  of  different  growths 13 

Relative  values  of  different  grades 16 

Relative  value  of  different  lengths  of  staple 18 

Summary  and  conclusions 22 

Farmers’  Bulletin  592. — Stock-watering  Places  on  Western  Grazing 
Lands. 

Need  for  water  on  the  range 1 

Daily  water  requirements  of  live  stock 2 

Relation  of  v^ater  supply  to  food  production 3 

Warm  and  cold  water 3 

Distance  range  stock  should  travel  to  water 3 

Natural  watering  places  and  their  improvement 4 

Artificial  watering  places 9 

Fse  of  cement 26 

Farmers’  Bulletin  593. — How  to  Use  Farm  Credit. 

Nature  and  use  of  capital 1 

How  capital  is  secured 2 

Proper  and  improper  uses  of  credit 2 

Gbjection  to  use  of  credit 3 

Principal  more  important  than  interest 3 

Repayment  and  duration  of  loan 5 


CONTENTS. 


VTT 


Farmers’  Bulletin  593. — How  to  Use  Farm  Credit— Continued. 

Repayment  of  long-time  loans 

Rates  of  interest 

Improving  credit  conditions 

Farmers’  Bulletin  594. — Shipping  Eggs  by  Parcel  Post. 

Introduction 

Summary  of  results  of  experimental  shipments 

The  eggs 

Preserving  eggs  in  water  glass 

Containers 

Packing  eggs  for  shipment 

Supplies  for  shippers 

Unpacking  eggs  when  received 

The  return  of  empty  containers 

Methods  of  bringing  producer  and  consumer  together 

Contracts  or  agreements  between  producers  and  consumers 

Parcel-post  zones 

Direct  marketing  of  larger  quantities  of  eggs  than  private  families  require . 

Opportunity  of  extension  of  parcel-post  marketing  to  other  products 

Summary 

Farmers’  Bulletin  595.^ — Arsenate  of  Lead  as  an  Insecticide  Against 
THE  Tobacco  Hornworms  in  the  Dark-tobacco  District. 

Introductory.  . 

Necessity  and  advantages  of  the  use  of  an  insecticide 

Injury  to  tobacco  by  the  use  of  Paris  green 

Advantages  of  the  use  of  arsenate  of  lead 

Results  that  have  been  obtained  from  the  use  of  arsenate  of  lead 

Mow  to  apply  arsenate  of  lead  to  tobacco 

The  grade  of  arsenate  of  lead  that  should  be  used 

When  to  apply  arsenate  of  lead 

Dosage  of  arsenate  of  lead  required 

Cost  of  arsenate  of  lead . . . . , 

Summary 

P'armers’  Bulletin  596.^ — The  Culture  of  Winter  Wheat  in  the  Eastern 
United  States. 

Introduction 

Soils  adapted  to  wheat 

Fertilizers 

Rotations 

Wheat  as  a nurse  crop 

Wheat  as  a cover  crop 

Preparation  of  the  seed  bed 

Preparation  of  the  seed 

Sowdng  the  seed 

Pasturing  and  mowing 

Cultivation  of  the  crop 

Harvesting  the  crop 

Thrashing 

Farmers’  Bulletin  597.— The  Road  Drag  and  How  It  Is  LTsed. 

Introduction 

Purpose  of  the  drag 

How  the  drag  is  constructed 

How  to  use  the  drag 

When  to  use  the  drag 


I’age. 

6 

(j 


1 

2 
2 

4 

5 
8 
9 

11 

12 
12 

13 

14 
18 

19 

20 


1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

5 

5 

() 

6 
6 


8 


1 

2 

3 

5 

G 

G 

7 

8 
8 

10 

10 

10 

12 


1 

2 

2 

7 

8 


Mil 


FAKMEKS  BULLETINS;  NOS.  576-600. 


Farmers’  Bulletin  597. — The  Road  Drag  and  How  It  Is  Used — Contd.  page. 

Features  of  road  construction  involved 10 

Cost  of  drag  maintenance 12 

Conclusion 14 

Farmers’  Bulletin  598. — ^The  Agricultural  Outlook. 

Winter- wheat  condition  and  forecast  May  1 1 

Wlieat  fed  to  live  stock 3 

The  outlook  for  the  1914  foreign  wheat  crop 4 

Rye 6 

Hay 6 

Pastures 7 

Spring  plowing  and  planting 7 

Trend  of  prices  of  farm  products 7 

Honeybees 8 

Beet  sugar  in  the  United  States,  1913 9 

Sources  of  sugar  supply 11 

Final  returns  for  the  Hawaiian  sugar  campaign  of  1912-13 12 

Acreage  and  yield  of  cotton  in  1913 13 

Basis  for  interpreting  crop-condition  reports 13 

Florida  and  California  crop  report 14 

Equivalent  in  yield  per  acre  of  100  per  cent  condition  on  June  1 21 

Farmers’  Bulletin  599.— -Pasture  and  Grain  Crops  for  Hogs  in  the 
Pacific  Northm^est. 

Introduction 1 

Management  of  pastures 1 

Grain  ration  while  hogs  are  on  pasture 3 

Hogging  off  crops 5 

Crops  suitable  for  pasture  and  hogging  off 10 

Summary 27 

Farmers’  Bulletin  600.— An  Outfit  for  Boring  Taprooted  Stumps  for 
Blasting. 

Introduction •. 1 

Placing  the  charge 1 

Power  outfit  for  boring  stumps 2 

Method  of  operating 3 

Results  obtained  in  a test 4 

Grade  of  power  to  use 5 

Cost  of  the  outfit 5 

Conclusion 5 


< 


US. DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


576 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  A.  D.  Melvin,  Chief. 
May  2,  1914. 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  FOR  THE  FARM. 

By  F.  R.  Marshall, 

Senior  Animal  Husbandman  in  Sheep  and  Goat  Investigations,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry Division. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Recent  market  values  for  meat  animals  have  caused  a renewal  of 
interest  in  the  raising  of  live  stock  on  farms.  The  study  of  raising 
and  disposing  of  crops  to  the  best  advantage  also  suggests  the  more 
general  and  more  careful  production  of  live  stock.  In  this  movement 
the  possibilities  of  securing  profits  from  farm  sheep  are  becoming 
better  and  more  widely  understood. 

Variations  in  wool  values  explain  in  large  part  the  increases  and 
decreases  in  numbers  of  farm  sheep  during  the  past  50  years.  At 
present  many  former  raisers  of  commercial  sheep  who  bred  altogether 
for  wool  are  giving  more  attention  to  mutton,  and  most  of  the  new 
flocks  being  established  are  of  some  of  the  mutton  breeds.  A system 
of  sheep  farming  that  is  to  be  continuously  successful  can  not  ignore 
either  wool  or  mutton.  In  many  cases  the  two  products  will  be 
worthy  of  equal  consideration;  in  others,  either  one  may  be  empha- 
ized  according  to  the  peculiarities  of  conditions,  management,  and 
marketing. 

A decision  to  raise  sheep  chiefly  for  mutton  purposes  leaves  much 
'ill  to  be  considered  in  making  a choice  of  type  and  breed.  The 
hoice  of  a breed  is  not  the  most  important  question.  Any  breed  is 
ar  s^uperior  to  no  breed.  Once  established,  there  must  be  advance  in 
AQ  character  and  usually  in  the  size  of  the  flock.  Such  advance  can 
not  be  made  unless  the  same  breed  and  type  is  adhered  to  in  securing 
'•ams.  The  female  of  mixed  breeding,  no  matter  how  good  indi- 
idually,  is  an  uncertain  quantity  when  used  as  a breeder.  There  are 
nough  highly  improved  breeds  to  allow  a choice  of  one  that  will 
lave  special  fitness  for  almost  any  combination  of  real  needs.  In 
his  bulletin  it  is  aimed  to  discuss  the  breeds  in  a way  that  will  enable 

Note. — Discusses  the  breeds  in  a way  to  enable  those  not  familiar  with  them  to  know 
>^’hich  are  likely  to  meet  their  requirements. 

31623°— 14 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  576. 


those  who  are  not  familiar  with  them  to  know  which  ones  are  likely 
to  meet  the  requirements. 

Some  of  the  breeds  differ  very  strikingly  in  appearance.  Differ- 
ences in  size,  color,  and  covering  of  face  and  legs,  while  quickly  no- 
ticed, are  not  the  main  points  which  determine  whether  a breed  is 
likely  to  prove  satisfactory  upon  rough  pasture  land,  for  winter  lamb- 
ing, or  any  of  the  points  that  must  be  taken  into  account  when  start- 
ing into  sheep  raising.  The  breeds  differ  very  widely  in  their  special 
points  of  usefulness  for  various  sections  and  systems  of  management. 
The  differences  are  mainly  a result  of  breeding  for  special  qualities 
needed  by  the  farmers  in  the  localities  in  AAdiich  and  for  which  the 
breed  Avas  formed.  The  minor  points,  such  as  color  and  shape  of 
head,  must  be  regarded  as  sIioaa  ing  hoAV  far  the  animals,  are  true  to 
the  type  of  Avhat  the  breeders  tried  to  produce,  not  only  in  appear- 
ance but  in  breeding  and  feeding  qualities. 

In  starting  into  sheep  raising  the  most  important  thing  is  to  decide 
what  plan  can  best  be  followed.  The  available  feed  and  care  and 
the  selling  outlets  will  determine  this.  If  pa’sturage  is  sparse,  feed 
expensive,  and  marketing  arrangements  poor,  wool  Avill  need  to  be 
the  first  consideration.  If  there  is  a good  market  for  winter  lambs 
and  the  feed  and  care  that  can  be  given  are  such  as  are  needed,  then 
the  ability  of  the  ewes  to  get  in  lamb  in  the  spring  and  the  mutton 
qualities  are  the  important  things  to  look  for  in  the  breeding  stock. 
If  it  is  desired  to  haA^e  lambs  come  early  and  to  feed  them  to  be  sold 
before  the  time  stomach  worms  become  troublesome,  the  choice  would 
not  fall  upon  the  same  breed  that  would ‘fit  in  if  there  was  a better 
chance  to  keep  the  lambs  on  clean  pastures  and  they  were  expected  to 
take  care  of  themseh^es  more  largely  through  their  first  summer.  . 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  all  farmers  in  a countA^  will  select 
the  same  breed  of  sheep.  Some  may  Avish  to  follow  plans  that  differ 
from  the  ones  favored  by  other  farmers.  However,  there  are  many 
advantages  that  may  be  realized  if  a number  of  farmers  in  a com- 
munity adopt  a common  plan  of  sheep  raising  and  use  rams  of  the 
same  type,  at  least,  if  not  of  the  same  breed.  If  their  lambs  are  simi- 
lar and  ready  to  ship  at  the  same  time,  a number  of  owners  can  join 
together  to  fill  a car,  or  if  the  number  of  lambs  is  large  and  the  quality 
uniform  they  will  sell  themselves,  as  the  buyers  will  come  after  them. 
Another  advantage  in  community  breeding  is  that  new  rams  can  be 
purchased  jointly.  Owners  of  tAvo  small  flocks  can  go  together  and 
buy  a better  ram  than  either  of  them  alone  would  care  to  pay  for. 
When  the  daughters  of  such  a ram  are  ready  to  breed  he  can  go  to 
another  flock  in  the  neighborhood  in  exchange  for  one  that  has  been 
siring  good  lambs  but  is  too  closely  related  to  ewes  in  his  flock  to 
permit  of  further  use. 


BKEEDS  OF  SHEEP  FOR  THE  FARM. 


3 


CLASSES  OF  SHEEP. 

There  are  30  breeds  of  improved  sheep  that  have  been  brought  to 
fixed  types  as  adapted  to  the  needs  of  their  native  homes.  Of  these. 
12  are  well  established  in  the  United  States  and  a number  of  others 
are  gaining  in  poiDularity.  The  better-known  breeds  can  be  grouped 
into  three  classes,  each  class  having  its  own  general  qualities. 

The  Middle  Wool  class  includes  Southdowns,  Shropshires,  Hamp- 
shires,  Oxfords,  Dorsets,  Cheviots,  Suffolks,  and  Tunis,  the  last  two 
not  being  numerous. 

The  Long  Wool  class  includes  the  CotsAvold,  Leicester,  and  Lincoln 
breeds,  and  the  Romney  Marsh,  which  is  not  as  well  known  in  Amer- 
ica as  the  others. 

The  fine-wool  class  includes  the  American  Merino  and  the  Ram-* 
bouillet.  The  various  strains  of  Merinos  formerly  known  by  numer- 
ous names  are  now  grouped  into  three  types.  A,  B,  and  C. 

MIDDLE  WOOLED  SHEEP. 

The  following  breeds  are  included  in  this  class:  Southdown, 
Shropshire,  Hampshire,  Oxford,  Suffolk,  Dorset,  Tunis,  and  Cheviot. 
The  first  five  are  collectively  referred  to  as  down  ” breeds,  because 
of  the  nature  of  the  country  in  which  they  were  developed.  This 
country  is  one  of  ranges  of  hills  or  “ downs,”  as  they  are  called  in 
southern  England.  The  “ doAvn  ” breeds  have  all  been  bred  primarily 
for  mutton,  with  special  emphasis  upon  some  useful  character  con- 
sidered necessary  for  the  style  of  farming  and  the  markets  of  the 
various  counties  or  shires  from  which  most  of  the  breeds  take  their 
names. 

The  face  and  leg  color  of  all  the  “ down  ” breeds  is  of  some  shade  of 
brown  or  black,  and  the  fleece  occupies  a middle  position  between  the 
length  and  coarseness  of  the  long  wools  and  the  extreme  flneness  and 
density  of  the  fine  wools.  While  there  are  breed  variations  in  fineness, 
length,  and  density,  the  fleece  is  always  close  and  dry  enough  to  fur- 
nish excellent  protection. 

THE  SOUTHDOWN. 

The  Southdown  is  the  oldest  of  the  middle  wool  breeds  and  on  that 
account  flocks  of  the  breed  are  strikingly  uniform  in  their  qualities 
and  appearance.  Their  body  conformation  is  the  ideal  one  for 
mutton  and  no  breed  surpasses  them  in  the  estimation  of  the  market. 
From  the  raiser’s  standpoint  they  are  not  so  large  as  is  desirable. 
Because  of  their  conformation  the  weights  are  large  in  proportion  to 
the  apparent  size  and  they  will  become  fat  enough  for  market  while 
growing.  Being  of  medium  size  they  are  more  active  than  larger 
sheep  and  better  adapted  to  rolling  or  hilly  pastures.  The  ewes  are 


4 FARMERS^  BULLETIN  576. 

good  mothers  and  milkers.  With  good  management  the  number  of 
lambs  raised  Avill  average  120  per  cent  of  the  ewes  bred. 

The  Southdown  is  readily  recognized  by  its  very  blocky,  low  set 
appearance.  The  breadth  of  the  back,  thickness  of  loin,  with  the 
plumpness  of  the  thighs  and  twist,  are  breed  points  of  greatest  value. 
The  head  is  short  and  broad,  and  the  eyes  prominent.  The  fleece 
is  very  close,  quite  fine,  but  usually  too  short  to  weigh  heavily.  The 
face  is  sometimes  partly  covered  with  wool  and  varies  in  its  color 
from  brown  to  mouse  color  or  very  light  gray.  The  legs  show  the 
same  color  as  the  face.  • 


Fig.  1. — A Southdown  ewe. 

The  blocky  thick  build  is  characteristic  of  the  breed,  as  well  as  the  full,  plump 
breast  and  the  short  head. 

The  breeders’  association  for  this  breed  is  American  Southdown 
Breeders’  Association,  F rank  S.  Springer,  secretary,  510  East  Monroe 
Street,  Springfield,  111. 

THE  SHROPSHIRE. 

The  Shropshire  is  the  most  widely  known  and  bred  of  the  “ down  ” 
breeds  in  America.  In  body  it  is  intermediate  between  Southdown 
and  larger  breeds.  The  lambs  reach  common  market  weight  later  than 
the  larger  breeds  and  slower  gains  may  be  most  economical  in  some 
sections.  Where  sheep  raising  can  not  be  made  a specialty,  it  is 
often  desirable  to  keep  the  lambs  to  be  finished  in  winter  quarters. 
Under  such  management  the  lambs  of  breeds  of  intermediate  size 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  FOR  THE  FARM. 


5 


are  not  likely  to  be  above  the  best  selliiio-  weight  when  sold.  This 
plan,  however,  involves  the  need  of  adopting  methods  to  avoid 
trouble  from  stomach  worms  in  summer  and  fall. 

In  weight,  length,  and  fineness  of  fleece  the  Shropshire  ranks  very 
high  and  the  proceeds  of  the  wool  are  a very  important  part  of  the 
income  from  the  flock.  In  breeding  for  a valuable  fleece  along  with 
mutton  qualities  the  Shropshire  breeders  prefer  sheep  that  are  well 
Avooled  up  over  the  poll,  down  below  the  eyes,  and  on  the  ears.  This 
along  with  the  shape  of  the  head,  and  color  of  face  and  legs,  serves 
as  a distinguishing  feature.  The  head  is  ordinarily  wide  between 


Fig.  2. — A Shropshire  ram. 

This  illustration  shows  the  desirable  face  and  leg  covering  and  appearance  of  fleece, 
but  the  animal  is  not  as  compact  in  form  as  is  usually  preferred. 


the  eyes  and  ears,  short,  breedy  looking,  and  varies  in  color  from 
brown  to  almost  black,  the  legs  where  not  wooled  showing  the  same 
color. 

Aside  from  the  head  the  Shropshire  type  calls  for  a very  attractive 
smoothness  and  compactness  of  body  set  upon  short  legs.  This  type 
can  be  recognized  whether  the  wool  is  long  or  short,  trimmed  or 
untrimmed,  by  standing  some  distance  off  and  studying  the  outlines 
and  appearance  of  the  animal  before  endeavoring  to  examine  points 
of  detail. 

The  breeders’  association  for  this  breed  is  American  Shropshire 
Kegistry  Association,  Miss  Julia  M.  Wade,  secretary.  La  Fayette,  Ind. 


6 


FARMERS^  RLILLETIX  57G. 


THE  IIAMPSHIKE. 

The  strong  point  of  the  Hampshire  is  tlie  rapid  rate  of  growth  in 
the  lambs  Avhen  well  fed.  This  quality  is  associated  with  unusual 
size,  the  breed  being  the  largest  of  the  middle  wool  class.  Because 
of  this  feature  the  breed  is  favored  by  persons  wishing  to  get  lambs 
upon  the  market  at  an  early  age  and  who  are  prepared  to  furnish 
feed  and  care  to  insure  this  rapid  growth 

The  ewes  rank  with  other  middle  wools  in  the  number  of  lambs  pro- 
duced, and  are  fully  average  in  milking  qualities  and  mothering  their 


Fig.  3. — A Hampshire  ewe. 

The  square  and  I’ugged  appearance  shown  is  peculiar  to  the  Hampshire.  The  nose 
does  not  show  as  strong  as  is  usual.  The  ears  are  typical. 


lambs.  On  account  of  its  size  and  weight  the  Hampshire  is  not 
adapted  to  very  rough  or  scanty  pastures. 

In  appearance  the  Hampshire  is  large  framed,  rather  tall,  heavy 
boned,  rugged,  and  somewhat  coarse  looking.  Apart  from  the  size, 
the  head  is  the  most  distinctive  feature.  This  is  large,  strong  in  the 
nose  in  both  sexes,  black  in  color,  and  the  ears  are  large  and  seldom 
erect.  A fine  or  a small  head  is  not  associated  with  the  qualities  upon 
which  the  Vireed’s  popularity  is  based.  The  face  is  sometimes  wooled 
})elow  the  eyes,  though  commonly  only  over  the  crown. 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  FOR  THE  FARM. 


7 


There  is  considerable  variation  i:i  the  length  and  closeness  of  the 
fleeces,  the  opener  ones  running  more  to  length,  but  a fairly  close  and 
rather  coarse  fleece  is  most  common  and  does  not  shrink  heavily  in 
scouring.  Associated  with  the  dark  color  of  face  and  legs,  the  skin 
is  usually  inclined  to  be  blue. 

The  breeders’  association  for  this  breed  is  American  Hampshire 
Sheep  ^Association,  C.  A.  Tyler,  secretary,  310  East  Chicago  Street, 
Coldwater,  Mich. 


Fig.  4. — An  Oxford  ram. 

Thi.s  illustration  shows  the  square  type  of  the  Oxford.  The  fleece  does  not  appear 
as  well  as  in  some  of  the  better  specimens  of  the  breed.  The  shape  and  expressit»n  of 
the  face  are  typical. 

THE  OXFORD. 


An  idea  of  the  Oxford  may  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  the  blood 
of  the  Hampshire  and  Cotswold  was  used  in  forming  the  breed.  Be- 
ing a very  large  and  heav}’  breed,  the  lambs  grow  rapidly  when 
well  fed,  and  can  be  matured  early  if  desired,  though  not  so  eaj*!}^  as 
those  of  some  of  the  less  growthy  breeds.  They  fit  in  Avell  under  a 
plan  of  slower  early  growth  and  later  finishing,  such  as  is  suitable 
Avith  the  amount  and  kind  of  feed  and  labor  available  in  many  sec- 
tions devoted  to  mixed  farming.  The  breed  is  an  a\"erage  of  the  doAAm 
breeds  in  respect  to  yield  of  lambs,  milking  qualities,  and  length  of 
life. 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  576. 


The  fleece  of  the  Oxford  is  of  special  importance.  While  usually 
more  open  than  in  similar  breeds,  yet  it  is  close  enough  for  protection, 
and  the  extra  length  adds  to  the  weight  as  well  as  making  it  useful 
when  length  of  fiber,  without  too  great  coarseness,  is  needed. 

The  typical  Oxford  is  a large-framed,  heavy-boned,  strong-looking 
sheep.  The  appearance  of  size  is  added  to  by  the  extra  length  of 
wool,  though  some  individuals  run  to  the  shorter,  more  compact  style 
of  fleece.  The  head  is  less  coarse  and  lighter  colored  than  that  of 
the  Hampshire.  The  face  and  leg  color  varies,  but  is  usually  a light 
brown,  and  there  is  a small  white  spot  on  the  end  of  the  nose.  The 
face  is  partly  covered  with  wool.  The  ears  are  of  medium  size  and 
not  usually  wooled. 


Fig.  5. — A Dorset  ram. 

This  illustratioo  shows  a close  fleece.  The  strength  of  the  head  and  the  horns  are 
characteristic  of  mature  rams  of  the  breed. 


The  breeders’  association  for  this  breed  is  American  Oxford  Down 
Record  Association,  W.  A.  Shafor,  secretary,  Hamilton,  Ohio. 

THE  DORSET  HORN. 

The*  Dorset  is  of  the  middle  wool  type,  but  is  not  a “ down  ” breed. 
Both  rams  and  ewes  have  horns.  The  faces  and  legs  are  white. 

The  type  is  one  of  a little  larger  and  coarser  frame  with  less  com- 
pactness than  is  found  in  the  smaller  down  breeds.  Openness  of 
shoulder  is  quite  common.  The  fleece  is  medium  in  closeness  and 
length,  and  coarser  than  the  Shropshire.  There  is  little  wool  on 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  FOR  THE  FARM. 


9 


the  face  and  legs,  and  the  belly  is  frequently  short  Avooled  or  nearly 
bare. 

The  strong  feature  of  the  Dorset  is  the  breeding  habit.  The  breed 
was  developed  in  a section  where  early  lambs  were  desired  and  early 
breeding  ewes  were  preferred.  The  ewes  can  regularly  be  bred  to 
lamb  in  the  fall.  Two  crops  of  lambs  in  one  year  are  possible,  though 
seldom  advised.  Twins  are  quite  numerous  and  the  ewes  are  extra 
milkers.  Partly  because  of  the  milking  qualities  of  their  mothers 
the  lambs  grow  and  mature  rapidly.  This  point,  combined  with  the 
early  breeding  habit,  makes  the  breed  particularly  popular  with 


Fig.  6. — A Cheviot  ram. 

The  general  form  shown  in  this  illustration  is  characteristic  of  the  Cheviot.  The 
shape  and  bareness  of  the  head  is  also  characteristic,  but  the  face  has  not  the  appear- 
ance of  life  usually  shown. 


farmers  raising  winter  or  “ hot  house  ” lambs  for  marketing  from  / 
Thanksgiving  to  Easter. 

The  breeders’  association  for  this  breed  is  The  Continental  Dorset 
Club,  J.  E.  Wing,  secretary,  Mechanicsburg,  Ohio. 


THE  CHEVIOT. 

The  Cheviot  is  a mountain  breed.  It  is  accustomed  to  grazing  over 
rough  places  and  is  very  active  and  alert,  both  in  appearance  and 
behavior.  It  is  vigorous  and  hardy,  and  capable  of  producing  mut- 
ton upon  lands  unsuited  to  other  breeds. 

The  breed  is  distinguished  by  the  short  and  very  blocky  appear- 
ance, which  is  due  in  part  to  the  length  of  the  fairly  dense  fleece. 


10 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  576. 


[T^here  are  no  brown  markings,  and  the  bare  white  face  with  the 
strong  nose,  prominent  eye,  and  erect  ear  have  gained  the  Cheviots 
many  admirers.  The  conformation  has  been  miicli  improved,  but 
sharp  and  poorly  covered  shoulders  are  common.  In  development 
(of  hindquarters  the  breed  rivals  the  Southdown. 

The  breeders’  association  for  this  breed  is  American  Cheviot  Sheep 
Society,  F.  E.  Dawley,  secretary,  Fayetteville,  N.  Y. 


OTHER  MIDDLE  WOOLED  BREEDS. 

The  Suffolk  is  a “ down  ” breed.  The  ewes  are  hardy,  very  prolific, 
/ and  heavy  milkers.  The  face  and  legs  are  bare,  dark  black,  and  the 
belly  wool  is  light. 

/"^The  Tunis  is  an  Asiatic  sheep,  hornless,  brown  faced,  heavy  eared, 
and  the  wool  is  white,  brown,  or  reddish,  or  mixed  in  color.  The 
breed  also  has  the  fat  tail  character.  The  lambs  are  rapid  growers, 
'^d  the  blood  is  sometimes  used  by  raisers  of  winter  lambs. 

The  breeders’  association  for  this  breed  is  American  Tunis  Sheep 
Breeders’  Association,  Charles  Rountree,  secretary,  Crawfordsville, 
Ind. 

LONG  WOOL  BREEDS. 

'^^^^he  long  wools,  bred  chiefly  for  mutton,  are  the  largest  breeds  of 
sheep.  All  of  them  are  large-framed,  square-bodied  sheep,  with  very 
broad  backs.  Their  fleeces  are  open  or  loose  as  compared  with  the 
(jine  and  middle  wools,  coarser,  and  very  long. 

^As  their  size  indicates,  the  breeds  of  this  class  have  been  developed 
for  level  lands  where  feed  can  be  obtained  without  much  travel. 
With  proper  attention  they  will  thrive  upon  lands  that  are  too  low 
and  wet  for  the  breeds  of  the  middle  wool  class,  though  the  keeping 
of  any  sheep  on  marshy  ground  is  not  to  be  advised.  The  long  wools 
have  been  found  to  thrive  in  regions  of  excessive  rainfall,  the  long 
wool  carrying  the  water  off  the  body  as  the  close  fleece  will  not  do. 
Lambs  of  the  long  wooled  breeds  do  not  mature  so  rapidly  nor  fatten 
so  young  as  those  of  other  mutton  breeds.  On  some  farms  the  total- 
weight  of  the  lambs  produced  by  these  sheep  will  be  greater  in  pro- 
portion to  the  land  used  for  the  flock  than  from  the  smaller  breeds, 
but  extra  weight  in  lambs  beyond  95  pounds  usually  lowers  the 
price  on  the  market.  The  profit  from  an  animal  is  determined  no  less 
by  the  cost  of  raising  than  by  what  it  sells  for,  and  both  these  things 
must  be  taken  into  account  in  deciding  what  class  of  sheep  to  raise. 
The  long  wools  are  favored  by  only  a small  proportion  of  farmers 
who  raise  lambs  for  market. 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  FOR  THE  FARM. 


11 


THE  COTSWOLI), 

The  typical  Cotswold  is  a big-bodied,  rather  tall  sheep,  of  stylish 
appearance.  The  color  of  the  face,  ears,  and  legs  is  white  or  white 
mixed  with  a little  brown.  The  wool  extends  up  over  the  poll  and 
hangs  in  ringlets  of  varying  length  over  the  face.  All  over  the  body 
the  wool  hangs  in  long  wavy  ringlets  that  do  not  show  in  the  same 
way  on  other  breeds.  Generally  the  thigh  wool  is  hairy,  though  the 
fleece  as  a whole  is  bright,  and,  on  account  of  having  no  excess  of  oil, 
is  light  in  shrinkage  and  sells  well. 


The  shape  and  strength  of  bone  are  typical,  as  weU  as  the  appearance  of  the  fleece 
and  the  forelock. 

The  breeders’  association  for  this  breed  is  American  Cotswold 
Registry  Association,  F.  W.  Harding,  secretary,  AYaukesha,  AYis. 

THE  LINCOLN. 

The  Lincoln  is  shorter  and  more  compactly  built  than  the  Cots- 
wold. The  face  and  legs  are  white  with  occasionally  a bluish  tinge. 
The  back  is  very  strong,  heavily  and  firml}^  fleshed.  The  wool  is  of 
great  length,  though  much  coarser  than  that  of  the  shorter  wooled 
breeds.  Instead  of  hanging  in  the  ringlets  of  the  Cotswold  it  is  in 
larger,  broader  locks,  with  a characteristic  curl  at  the  outer  end. 

The  breeders’  association  for  this  breed  is  National  Lincoln  Sheep 
Breeders’  Association,  Bert  Smith,  secretary,  Charlotte,  Mich. 


12 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  576. 


THE  LEICESTER. 


The  Leicester  is  very  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  long  wools 
by  its  lean  and  strong  face.  The  nose  is  decidedly  Eoman  and  the 
j^ad  is  bare  of  wool  from  the  ears  forward.  The  Leicester  has  a very 
wide  and  well  covered  back,  but  the  depth  of  body  is  less  than  in  the 
^her  long  wools.  This  feature,  with  a strong  tendency  to  lightness 
of  belly  wool,  gives  the  breed  a leggy  appearance.  The  wool  is  finer 
and  softer  than  that  of  the  Cotswold  or  Lincoln,  though  not  always  so 
thick  upon  the  body.  The  fleece  hangs  in  locks  smaller  than  those  of 
the  Lincoln  and  without  the  Cotswold’s  appearance  of  ringlets. 


Fig.  8. — A Lincoln  ewe. 

The  shape  of  the  head  and  the  amount  of  covering  is  typical. 


The  breeders’  association  for  this  breed  is  American  Leicester 
Breeders’  Association,  A.  J.  Temple,  secretary,  Cameron,  111. 

OTHER  LONG  WOOL  BREEDS. 

Other  long  wool  breeds  are  the  Komney  Marsh,  or  Kent,  the 
AVensleydale,  and  Devon  Long  AA’^ool.  There  are  some  flocks  of  the 
first  named  in  America.  They  have  denser,  closer  fleeces  than  the 
breeds  discussed,  and  it  is  claimed  for  them  that  they  are  more  accus- 
tomed to  lowlands  and  to  scantier  fare  than  the  other  long  wools, 
though  hardly  equal  to  them  in  conformation. 


BEEEDS  OF  SHEEP  FOR  THE  FARM. 


13 


The  breeders’  association  for  this  breed  is  American  Eomney 
Breeders’  Association,  J.  E.  Wing,  secretary-treasurer.  Mechanics- 
burg,  Ohio. 

FINE  WOOL  SHEEP. 

j ^All  fine  wool  sheep  are  descendants  of  earlier  Spanish  stock.  The 
American  Merinos  have  been  bred  nearly  altogether  for  wool.  Some 
breeders  of  the  Delaine,  or  C type  Merino,  have  bred  to  some  extent 
for  a mutton  carcass  in  addition  to  fineness  and  length  of  wool. 

J In  the  case  of  the  Kambouillet  there  has  been  a greater  effort  to  im- 
l prove  the  mutton  qualities. 

A common  characteristic  of  all  Merinos  and  Eambouillets  is  the 
fineness  of  the  wool.  It  is  for  this  quality  they  have  been  bred,  and 
while  there  are  variations,  there  is  as  much  of  uniformity  in  fineness 
as  in  any  one  character  of  any  class  of  sheep.  This  fineness  is  an 
important  quality  of  wool,  although  its  value  in  the  market  varies 
from  time  to  time.  The  length  of  Merino  wool  varies,  less  than  one-  ^ 
third  of  the  fleeces  being  long  enough  for  combing.  Wool  of  tli^ 
fineness  of  the  Merino  and  of  combing  length  (over  2 inches)  is 
known  as  Delaine.  The  fleeces  of  fine-wool  sheep  are  heavy  in  oil 
or  yolk,  sometimes  losing  over  70  per  cent  in  scouring.  Wliile  some- 
times quoted  at  a seeming  low  price  per  pound  on  this  account,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  a fair  basis  of  comparing  fleece  values  is 
to  consider  the  fleece  weight  along  with  its  value -per  pound.  Along 
with  the  fineness  and  oil  of  the  fleeces  of  the  fine-wool  sheep  there 
is  the  tendency  to  wrinkles  and  folds  upon  the  neck  and  body,  con- 
sidered as  necessary  in  the  production  of  the  finest  wool.  The  extent 
of  the  development  of  wrinkles  varies  and  is  referred  to  later.  

Other  special  features  of  the  fine-wool  sheep  as  a class  are:  The 
ability  to  stand  traveling  long  distances  for  feed  and  water,  and  the 
instinct  to  herd  closely.  It  is  these  qualities  that  have  caused  fine- 
wool  sheep  to  be  used  so  largely  on  the  range.  In  addition  to  the 
points  named,  the  fine  wools  as  a class  have  strong  resistance  to 
internal  parasites  and  are  long  lived.  They  are  slow  in  maturing, 
the  ewes  produce  few  twins,  and  do  not  rank  high  as  mothers  and 
milkers.  The  ewes  are  much  more  likely  to  breed  in  spring  and 
summer  than  are  the  ewes  of  the  mutton  breeds,  and  this  has  caused 
them  to  be  used  by  winter  lamb  raisers  for  mating  with  mutton 
rams.  A few  of  the  rams  are  hornless,  but  most  of  them  have  strong 
curving  horns.  The  ewes  are  always  polled.  Sheep  of  this  class  have^ 
been  found  to  thrive  under  a wide  variety  of  conditions,  sometime^ 
on  rather  low  moist  land.  ^ 

THE  AMERICAN  MERINO. 

The  statements  previously  made  apply  equally  to  the  A,  B,  and  C 
types  of  Merinos.  In  the  A and  B types  the  body  is  considered  only 


14 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  576. 


SO  far  as  is  necessary  to  secure  the  vigor  and  stamina  needed  to  enable 
the  sheep  to  2:)roduce  a hea\y  fleece  of  fine  wool.  Some  breeders  are 
now  giving  more  attention  than  formerly  to  strength  of  top  line  and 
heart  girth.  The  A type  is  the  extreme  in  the  size  and  number  of 
wrinkles  as  well  as  in  the  fineness  of  wool.  On  account  of  the  wrin- 
kles the  A type  is  not  considered  desirable  for  commercial  wool  raisers. 

Merinos  of  the  B type  are  stronger  in  body  than  the  A’s,  less 
heavily  Avrinkled,  and  grow  avooI  that  is  longer  but  not  so  fine. 


Fig.  9. — An  A type  Merino  ram  lamb. 

The  wrinkles  over  all  parts  of  the  body,  the  density  of  the  fleece,  and  the  covering 
of  the  face  and  legs  are  characteristic. 

The  C type,  or  Delaine  Merino,  is  larger  and  less  wrinkled  than  the 
other  types.  In  rams  two  good-sized  folds  on  the  neck  are  desired, 
Avhile  the  body  is  sometimes  quite  smooth.  Length  of  wool  is  de- 
manded in  this  type,  together  Avith  as  much  of  Aveight  and  fineness  as 
can  be  combined  Avith  it.  Some  C type  flocks  have  considerable  mut- 
ton value  and  the  lambs  are  fed  to  be  marketed  after  their  first  shear- 
ing. 

Mdiile  Merinos  are  recorded  as  being  of  A,  B,  or  C type,  there  is 
nothing  to  prevent  mating  A’s  and  C’s  to  produce  B’s.  In  fact,  such 
is  common  practice.  Because  of  this  it  is  especially  necessary  to  be 
assured  that  the  parents  and  grandparents  of  the  ram  to  be  used 
Avere  of  the  type  it  is  desired  to  raise. 

The  breeders’  associations  for  Merinos  are  American  and  Delaine 
Merino  Kecord  Association,  S,  M,  Cleaver,  secretary,  Delaware, 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  FOR  THE  FARM. 


15 


Ohio;  Dickinson  Merino  Sheep  Kecord  Co.,  Mrs.  Beulah  McDowell 
Miller,  secretary,  E.  F.  I).  Xo.  2,  Xew  Berlin,  Ohio;  National  Delaine 
Merino  Sheep  Breeders’  Association  of  Washington  County,  J.  B. 
Johnson,  secretary,  218  West  Pike  Street,  Canonsburg,  Pa.;  Stand- 
ard Delaine  Merino  Sheep  Breeders’  Association,  E.  JNI.  AAood,  sec- 
retary, Saline,  Mich. ; Michigan  Merino  Sheep  Breeders’  Association, 
E.  N.  Ball,  secretary,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.;  Vermont,  New  York,  and 
Ohio  Merino  Sheep  Breeders’  Association,  Wesley  Bishop,  secretary, 
E.  F.  D.  No.  1,  Delaware,  Ohio. 


Fig.  10. — A Rambouillet  ewe. 

The  size  and  squareness  of  form  with  face  and  leg  covering  are  characteristic  of  the 
l)est  Rambouillets. 


THE  KAMBOUILLET. 

The  Eambouillet  is  the  largest  and  strongest  bodied  of  fine-wool 
sheep.  Many  Eambouillet  breeders  give  most  attention  to  the  fleece, 
though  size  is  usually  more  sought  for  than  in  the  American  Merinos. 
Some  of  the  ewes  have  backs  broad  and  fleshy  enough  to  compare  fav- 
orably with  the  best  of  the  mutton  sheep.  The  rams  are  likely  to  be 
high  in  the  withers  and  low  back  of  the  shoulders.  Their  size, 
growthiness,  and  strong  vitality  are  their  strongest  points  from  a 
mutton  standpoint.  In  selecting  for  a combination  of  mutton  and 
wool,  much  will  depend  upon  the  course  followed  by  the  breeder  of 
the  flock  from  which  the  purchase  is  made. 


16 


FAEMERS  BULLETIN  570. 


I ^Rambouillet  fleeces  vary  in  fineness  and  length,  but  are  usually  quite 
dense.  They  carry  less  oil  than  the  American  Merinos,  but  afford 
\ ample  protection  from  storms  and  low  temperatures  of  any  section. 

In  selecting  fine- wool  rams  it  is  necessary  to  be  correctly  informed 
in  regard  to  the  actual  age  of  the  fleece  and  to  know  whether  or  not 
the  wool  was  shorn  close  to  the  skin  over  all  parts  of  the  body  at  the 
previous  shearing. 

The  breeders’  associations  for  this  breed  are  American  Rambouillet 
Sheep  Breeders’  Association,  Dwight  Lincoln,  secretary,  Milford  Cen- 
ter, Ohio;  International  Von  Homeyer  Bambouillet  Club,  E.  N.  Ball, 
secretary,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.. 


CROSS-BRED  SHEEP. 

rit  is  sometimes,  though  rarely,  good  policy  to  cross  breeds  of  sheep. 
In  a farm  flock  that  is  to  be  maintained  and  enlarged  by  keeping 
ewe  lambs  raised,  sires  of  the  same  breed  should  be  used  continuously. 
If  it  appears  really  necessary  to  change  breeds  it  will  be  quicker  and 
[Cheaper  to  sell  the  stock  on  hand  and  start  over  again.-  The  ewe  of 
mixed  breeding  is  a very  uncertain  quantity  as  a lamb  raiser. 

With  flocks  of  fine-wool  ewes  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  use  mutton 
rams  to  sire  lambs  having  more  mutton  quality  than  could  be  had 
with  purebred  Merinos.  Both  ewes  and  ram  lambs  from  such  a cross 
should  be  marketed  and  a large  enough  number  of  ewes  mated  with 
good  rams  of  the  same  blood  to  produce  lambs  to  replace  old  ewes. 

o 


WASHINGTON  ; GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


Ww  y ^ 

US.DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Wm.  A.  Taylor,  Chief. 
March  14,  1914. 


GROWING  EGYPTIAN  COTTON  IN  THE  SALT  RIVER 
VALLEY,  ARIZONA. 


By  E.  W.  Hudson, 

Assistant,  Crop  Physiologji  and  Breeding  Investigations. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Large  yields  of  uniformly  long  and  strong  fiber  of  Egyptian  cotton 
can  be  obtained  only  by  proper  attention  to  the  selection  and  prepara- 
tion of  the  land  and  by  careful  cultivation  and  irrigation  of  the  ciop. 
It  is  also  veiy  important  to  manage  the  crop  so  that  the  bulk  of  it 
will  ripen  early.  Cotton  ripened  in  October  or  November  is  always 
superior  to  that  ripened  later.  Growers  of  Egyptian  cotton  should 
prepare  the  land  during  the  previous  autumn,  or  at  latest  during 
the  winter,  so  as  to  have  it  ready  for  planting  early  in  the  spring. 
Egyptian  cotton  is  a long-season  crop  and  should  be  planted  early 
in  March. 

The  object  of  this  paper  is  to  describe  methods  of  preparing  the 
land  and  irrigating  and  cultivating  the  crop  which  have  proved 
successful  in  the  Salt  River  Valley. 

SELECTION  OF  LAND. 

Since  it  is  very  important  that  the  land  be  prepared  as  early  as 
possible,  it  is  well  for  those  who  expect  to  plant  cottbn  to  have  the 
natter  in  mind  in  handling  the  land  with  the  preceding  crop. 

The  question  of  what  soil  is  best  adapted  to  cotton  is  often  asked. 
Iny  land  that  will  grow  good  crops  of  alfalfa  and  grain  will  also 
;tow  good  cotton.  The  heavier  and  more  fertile  soils  as  a rule  will 
TOW  a smaller  and  more  fruitful  plant  with  shorter  nodes,  and  hence 
nore  fruiting  branches.  While  some  raw  desert  land  will  make 
good  cotton,  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  land  previously  in 
idfalfa  will  produce  better  cotton,  and  the  crop  can  be  produced 
more  economically.  New  land  does  not  hold  the  water  so  well  and  as 
a rule  requires  more  frequent  irrigation.  It  is  usually  uneven, 
with  spots  of  lighter  soil  here  and  there  which  have  to  be  irrigated 
separately  in  order  to  keep  the  growth  uniform.  While  in  some 
nstances  good  yields  of  excellent  fiber  have  been  obtained  on  raw 
‘and,  the  best  results  are  to  be  had  on  old  land,  especially  if  it  has 
deviously  been  in  alfalfa. 


30036°— 14 


2 


farmers'  bulletin  577. 


A great  deal  of  the  land  in  the  Salt  River  Valley  of  Arizona  is 
infested  with  Bermuda  and  Johnson  grasses.  This  infestation  is 
worse  on  land  that  was  under  cultivation  prior  to  the  completion  of 
the  Roosevelf  Dam.  The  growing  of  a cultivated  crop  is  the  surest 
means  of  ridding  the  land  of  these  troublesome  weeds.  There  are, 
conservatively  speaking,  fully  10,000  acres  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Salt  River  alone  that  would  be  greatly  benefited  by  cropping  with 
cotton.  This  is  as  good  land  for  cotton  as  any  in  the  valley.  Most 
of  it  is  level,  and  it  has  been  made  rich  by  crops  of  alfalfa. 

SLOPE  OF  THE  LAND. 

Land  that  is  nearly  level  .will  require  less  water  for  the  crop,  can 
be  irrigated  more  evenly,  and  will  produce  more  uniform  cotton  than 
land  with  a heavy  slope.  If  there  is  much  grade  to  the  land  it  will 
he  found  that  the  fields  dry  out  in  spots  during  August  and  September, 
and  in  order  to  avoid  injury  to  the  cotton  it  will  be  necessary  to  irri- 
gate these  spots  separately,  thus  causing  much  extra  work.  The 
best  grade  to  be  given  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  character  of 
the  soil,  a steeper  grade  being  possible  in  light  soils  into  which  the 
water  sinks  readily  than  in  heavy  soils  which  will  not  become  thor- 
oughly wet  unless  the  water  stands  for  some  time.  Where  alfalfa  land 
is  plowed  up  in  order  to  plant  cotton  it  is  often  advisable  to  irrigate 
the  cotton  in  a different  direction  from  that  used  in  irrigating  the 
alfalfa,  in  order  to  secure  a lighter  grade. 

EARLY  PREPARATION  OF  THE  LAND. 

The  first  stage  in  the  preparation  of  the  land  depends  upon  its 
condition,  whether  weedy  or  clean,  and  upon  the  nature  of  the  pre- 
ceding crop. 

In  preparing  land  which  is  overrun  with  Johnson  grass  for  cotton, 
the  best  plan  is  to  plow  about  2 inches  deep  during  August,  allowing 
the  soil  to  dry  out  thoroughly;  then  to  disk  and  harrow  thoroughly, 
dragging  as  many  of  the  roots  to  the  surface  as  possible.  A spring- 
tooth  harrow  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  this  work.  Dining 
November  or  December  the  land  should  again  be  given  a shallow 
plowing  and  pulverized  by  disking  and  harrowing.  At  this  time 
it  may  be  well  to  go  over  the  land  both  ways  with  an  orchard  culti- 
vator or  some  similar  tool  having  long  teeth.  This  will  bring  a great 
many  of  the  roots  to  the  surface,  and  if  in  sufficient  quantity  they 
should  be  raked  up  and  burned  or  hauled  off  the  field.  The  land 
may  then  be  left  fallow  until  the  latter  part  of  February. 

Bermuda  grass  alone  is  not  so  hard  to  eradicate  as  Johnson  grass 
or  a mixture  of  Bermuda  and  Johnson  grasses.  It  is  possible  by 
shallow  plowing  during  November  or  December,  followed  by  thorough 
disking  and  harrowing,  to  put  Bermuda-grass  land  in  shape  for 
cotton.  If  the  land  is  kept  thoroughly  disked  and  harrowed  during 
the  winter,  the  freezing  will  greatly  aid  in  kilHng  the  roots.  Two 
or  three  weeks  before  Ranting,  the  land  should  be  plowed  from  4 to  6 
inches  deep  and  thoroughly  pulverized.  If  regular  cultivation  be 
kept  up  during  the  early  part  of  the  growing  season,  or  until  the 
cotton  plants  become  large  enough  to  shade  the  ground,  the  Bermuda 
grass  will  not  have  a chance  to  establish  itself  sufficiently  to  become 
a nuisance. 


EGYPTIAN  COTTON  IN  SALT  KIVER  VALLEY,  ARIZONA. 


3 


It  may  cost  the  grower  from  $6  to  $10  an  acre  to  put  Bermuda 
and  Johnson  grass  land  m proper  condition  for  cotton.  The  weeds 
can  then  be  kept  down  by  intensive  cultivation,  altliough  it  may  be 
found  necessary  to  chop  out  the  grass  in  the  rows  at  the  time  the 
cotton  is  being  thinned,  and  in  bad  cases  once  or  twice  later  in  the 
season. 

By  this  method  it  is  possible  for  the  growers  to  eradicate  both  of 
these  grasses  within  two  years  and  to  grow  a remunerative  crop  on 
the  land  while  this  is  being  done. 

In  preparing  to  plant  cotton  on  ahaha  land  which  is  not  overrun 
with  Bermuda  or  Johnson  grass,  the  same  general  plan  can  be  fol- 
lowed. HoweA^er,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  do  as  much  disking 
and  harrowing  or  cross  plowing  as  in  the  case  on  land  infested 
with  Bermuda  or  Johnson  grass.  If  alfalfa  land  is  plowed  2 inches 
deep  early  in  the  autumn  and  turned  up  to  the  sun  until  thoroughly 
dry  and  then  later  in  the  season  plowed  4 to  6 inches  deep,  there  will 
be  very  little  trouble  from  the  growth  of  alfalfa  during  the  following 
season.  While  alfalfa  land  may  be  prepared  at  any  time  prior  to 
the'  planting  season,  the  best  results  wiU  be  obtained  if  the  land  is 
plowed  first  in  October  or  November,  followed  by  a second  plowing 
in  January. 

In  preparing  n to  cotton,  a stalk 


small  pieces.  Then 


cutter  should 


the  land  should  be  plowed,  disked,  and  harrowed  until  in  perfect 
tilth,  when  it  may  be  left  until  planting  time.  In  the  absence  of  a 
stalk  cutter  the  plants  can  be  dragged  down  with  a heavy  drag  after 
a hard  freeze.  A great  many  of  the  stalks  will  be  pulled  out,  and 
those  remaining  in  the  ground  can  be  loosened  with  a mattock. 
This  treatment  is  inexpensWe,  costing  only  about  $1  or  $1.25  per 
acre.  After  all  the  plants  are  pulled  out  of  the  ground,  the  field 
should  be  raked  crosswise  with  a hayrake  and  the  stalks  put  up  in 
windrows  and  burned. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  SEED  BED. 


There  will  be  no  occasion  to  regret  the  labor  expended  during  the 
winter  in  preparing  the  seed  bed,  since  if  this  is  done  thoroughly  a 
great  deal  less  work  will  be  required  during  the  summer  to  grow  the 
crcy),  and  the  yield  will  be  correspondingly  larger. ^ 

It  depends  upon  the  kind  of  soil  and  the  condition  it  is  in  whether 
a double  plowing  is  necessary  to  put  the  land  in  good  tilth  or  whether 
this  can  be  done  with  a single  plowdng  and  double  disking  and  double 
harrowing.  Land  preAUously  in  cotton  or  grain,  if  irrigated  before 
plowing,  can  be  put  in  perfect  condition  by  one  plovdng.  Land 
previously  in  alfalfa  should  be  plowed  twice.  During  the  latter 
part  of  February  borders  should  be  thrown  up  about  2 rods  apart. 
Just  before  planting  time,  which  is  between  March  10  and  April  1, 
the  land  should  be  flooded  and  then  disked  and  harrowed  until  in 
perfect  tilth. 

’ As  an  example  of  how  not  to  go  about  this  work,  the  case  may  be  cited  of  a farmer  who  last  year  plowed 
and  leveled  his  land  very  poorly  and,  instead  of  disking  several  times  after  the  irrigation  just  before  plant- 
ing the  seed,  made  small  furrows  and  planted  the  seed  with  the  idea  of  pulverizing  the  land  when  culti- 
vating. This  piece  of  cotton  had  to  be  hoed  twice  and  cultivated  several  times  more  than  a near-by  field 
which  was  double-disked  and  harrowed  until  it  was  in  perfect  condition  before  the  seed  was  planted. 


4 


farmers’  bulletin  511. 


At  this  time,  if  the  soil  is  very  heavy  it  may  be  advisable  in  rare 
instances  to  throw  up  beds,  for  the  reason  that  land  of  this  character 
may  have  to  be  irrigated  in  order  to  germinate  the  seed.  The  beds 
should  be  made  3-|  feet  wide  and  8 inches  high,  but  should  be  dragged 
down  to  not  more  than  half  of  this  height  before  planting.  A drag 
can  easily  be  constructed  of  2 by  6 inch  scantling  that  will  take  two 
(or  possibly  three)  beds  at  a time.  It  should  be  weighted  down  until 
it  drags  off  enough  of  the  surface  clod  to  get  down  to  the  moist  soil. 
Bedding  is  usually  unnecessary,^  since,  if  pulverized  sufficiently  after 
a thorough  irrigation  and  before  planting,  most  of  the  soil  of  the 
Salt  River  Valley  will  hold  moisture  enough  to  bring  up  the  seed 
without  further  watering. 

PLANTING. 

Planting  should  be  done  between  March  10  and  April  1,  or  as  soon 
as  possible  after  the  danger  of  frost  is  over.  Either  a 1-horse  or  a 
2-horse  planter  may  be  used,  though  the  latter  will  be  more  satis- 
factory. 

On  land  which  has  been  made  very  rich  by  previous  crops  of 
alfalfa  and  Bermuda  grass,  cotton  should  be  planted  in  rows  4 feet 
apart.  On  new  land,  desert  land,  and  grain  land  that  has  never 
been  in  alfalfa,  the  rows  should  be  3 feet  apart. 

Under  normal  conditions,  seed  should  not  be  planted  less  than  1 
inch  or  more  than  2 inches  deep.  If  the  soil  is  in  perfect  condition, 
1 to  li  inches  is  a sufficient  depth  to  plant,  but  one  should  always 
bear  in  mind  that  the  seed  must  be  planted  deep  enough  to  insure 
prompt  germination  and  bring  the  young  plants  above  the  ground. 
It  is  very  important  that  only  as 'much  land  should  be  irrigated  at 
one  time  as  can  be  prepared  and  planted  before  it  becomes  too  dry 
to  germinate  the  seed.  Failure  to  follow  this  practice  often  results 
in  a poor  stand. 

To  insure  a good  stand,  from  40  to  50  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre 
should  be  planted.  This  quantity  will  give  a thick  drill  of  seed, 
which,  germinating  together,  will  break  through  any  crust  that  may 
form.  A thin  drill  of  seed  on  land  which  tends  to  crust  is  very  apt  to 
result  in  a poor  stand  of  cotton. 

It  is  never  advisable  to  flood  the  land  after  planting  in  order  to 
germinate  the  seed,  since  the  young  plants  are  unable  to  push  through 
the  crust  formed  by  flooding  and  a poor  stand  results.  In  the  case 
of  very  heavy  land  which  has  been  bedded,  an  irrigation  in  furrows 
may  be  given  in  order  to  germinate  the  seed. 

EARLY  CULTIVATION. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  visible  in  the  rows,  cultivation  should 
begin.  It  is  very  important  to  cultivate  as  soon  as  possible,  in  order 
to  break  any  crust  that  may  have  formed,  to  check  evaporation,  and 
to  kill  the  weeds.  The  benefits  from  frequent  shallow  cultivation 
at  regular  intervals  during  the  early  growing  season  are  that  the  root 
system  will  develop  better,  the  soil  will  be  aerated,  weeds  will  be  kept 
down,  and  less  water  will  be  required. 


1 None  of  the  soils  thus  far  planted  to  cotton  in  the  Salt  River  Valley  are  of  such  a character  as  to  neces- 
sitate bedding.  Experiments  conducted  at  Sacaton  last  year  proved  that  bedded  land  required  four 
more  irrigations  than  land  which  was  not  bedded. 


EGYPTIAN  COTTON  IN  SALT  RIVEE  VALLEY^  ARIZONA.  5 

EARLY  IRRIGATION. 

If  the  land  is  level  and  contains  the  proper  amount  of  moisture 
when  the  seed  is  planted,  and  if  intensive  cultivation  is  practiced, 
the  crop  will  not  require  an  irrigation  for  six  weeks  or  two  months 
after  planting,  except  on  new  land,  which  may  require  irrigation 
sooner.  At  the  end  of  this  time,  the  cotton  should  be  given  a light 
furrow  irrigation,  followed  by  cultivation  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
dry  enough  to  work.  In  some  instances  one  cultivation  after  an 
irrigation  will  be  sufficient  to  mulch  the  surface  properly.  If  one 
cultivation  does  not  put  the  field  in  good  condition,  it  should  be  gone 
over  a second  time  as  soon  as  possible.  In  any  event  the  crop  should 
be  cultivated  again  in  ten  days  or  two  weeks.  Under  ordinary  con- 
ditions it  wdll  not  be  necessary  to  irrigate  again  for  three  or  four 
weeks,  when  the  field  should  be  given  another  light  irrigation,  fol- 
lowed by  thorough  cultivation.  These  two  irrigations  should  be 
enough  to  carry  the  crop  until  about  July  1.  It  is  understood  that 
cultivation  should  always  follow  any  rains  that  may  come. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  irrigate  more  frequently  on  new  land,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  such  land  will  not  retain  moisture  so  well  as  land  that 
has  been  in  crop,  particularly  alfalfa.  In  all  probability  new  land  will 
have  to  be  irrigated  at  least  three  or  four  times  between  the  date 
of  planting  and  July  1.  Certain  tyj)es  of  old  land  may  also  require 
an  extra  irrigation  during  this  period.  Wilting  of  some  of  the  plants 
in  the  middle  of  the  day  during  the  early  stages  of  development  is 
not  conclusive  evidence  that  a general  irrigation  is  needed. 

The  reason  for  irrigating  sparingly  during  the  first  part  of  the 
season  is  to  prevent  the  too  rapid  growth  of  the  plants.  If  given  fre- 
quent heavy  irrigations,  the  plants  wdll  grow  woody  and  they  will  be 
apt  to  maintain  this  tendency  throughout  the  season  at  the  expense 
of  fruitfulness.  The  foundation  for  maximum  production  will  be 
laid  if  only  sufficient  water  is  given  the  plants  during  the  early 
stage  of  development  to  keep  them  in  a healthy  growing  condition. 

THINNING. 

Cotton  should  generally  be  thinned  after  the  second  irrigation, 
when  the  plants  are  between  8 and  12  inches  high.'  On  land  which 
has  been  enriched  by  previous  crops  of  alfalfa  and  where  the  rows 
are  4 feet  apart,  the  crop  should  be  thinned  so  as  to  have  the  plants 
from  8 to  16  inches  apart  in  the  row.  On  new  land  or  land  that  has 
previously  been  in  cotton,  where  the  rows  are  3 feet  apart,  the 
plants  should  be  thinned  to  from  4 to  6 inches  apart,  depending 
upon  the  richness  of  the  soil. 

Usually  the  grower  can  contract  for  the  thinning  or  chopping 
at  a cost  of  $1  per  acre,  which  will  allow  the  workman  fair  wages. 
The  thinning  may  be  done  in  one  or  two  operations.  Wliile  the 
productiveness  of  the  individual  plants  does  not  seem  to  be  increased 
by  thinning  twice,  this  is  likely  to  result  in  a more  uniform  stand  and 
hence  in  a larger  total  yield. 

If  the  cotton  is  to  be  thinned  twice,  the  plants  may  be  thinned 
after  the  first  irrigation  and  cultivation  to  a distance  of  2 or  3 inches 
apart  in  the  row.  This  distance  will  give  the  remaining  plants  room 
to  grow  and  will  insure  plants  enough  to  replace  those  which  may  be 


6 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  577. 


killed  during  the  later  cultivations.  By  thus  leaving  the  plants 
somewhat  crowded,  the  tendency  to  develop  large  limbs  or  vegeta- 
tive branches  will  be  checked  and  the  development  of  fruiting 
branches  will  be  favored.^  The  fmal  thinning  may  in  this  case  be 
delayed  until  the  plants  are  larger  and  stronger  than  when  the  thin- 
ning is  done  in  one  operation.  Thinning  should  be  conducted  so  as  to 
obtain  a uniform  stand  of  plants  properly  spaced" in  the  row.  For 
example,  if  the  nature  of  the  soil  requires  that  the  plants  be  thinned 
to  a distance  of  6 inches  apart,  the  largest  possible  yield  will  be 
obtained  if  there  is  a plant  in  every  6 inches  of  the  row  in  all  parts 
of  the  field. 

LATE  CULTIVATION. 

Cultivation  should  continue  at  intervals  of  from  10  to  15  days  as 
long  as  a horse  can  get  between  the  rows  of  cotton  without  breaking 
the  plants.  It  will  be  found  more  economical  to  use  a riding  culti- 
vator until  the  plants  are  too  high. 

When  the  plants  have  8 to  10  leaves,  it  is  desirable  to  begin  to 
draw  the  earth  toward  the  plants.  This  may  be  continued  very 
gradually  at  each  cultivation  until  the  plants  are  on  a ridge  3 to  4 
inches  high  and  12  to  14  inches  wide.  The  advantage  of  having  the 
cotton  plants  ridged  in  this  manner  is  that  in  the  later  irrigations  a 
more  even  distribution  of  the  water  can  be  secured.  This  practice 
also  helps  to  conserve  the  moisture  in  the  soil  immediately  around 
the  plants  and  to  cover  up  any  weeds  and  grass  that  may  start  be- 
tween the  cotton  plants. 

After  the  cotton  plants  have  become  so  large  that  a 2-horse  cul- 
tivator can  no  longer  be  used,  the  crop  may  be  cultivated  once 
or  twice  with  a single-row  7-shovel  cultivator  or  with  a spike- 
tooth  cultivator.  These  very  late  cultivations  will  of  necessity  be 
in  the  middle  of  the  row^s  and  thus  will  not  disturb  the  small  ridge 
that  has  been  thrown  up  around  the  cotton  plants.  Having  the 
cotton  plants  on  a small  ridge  will  also  greatly  facilitate  handling 
the  late  irrigations  after  the  plants  have  become  too  large  to 
cultivate. 

LATE  IRRIGATION. 

After  July  1 on  most  soils  the  crop  will  probably  require  an  irri- 
gation every  10  or  15  days.  At  this  time  the  cotton  plants  will  be 
flowering  and  should  be  given  enough  water  to  prevent  any  serious 
wilting  during  the  middle  of  the  day.  Some  ^ting  early  in  the 
season  does  little  or  no  harm,  but  after  the  flowering  begins  the 
plants  must  not  be  allowed  to  wilt.  When  the  flowers  can  be  seen 
above  the  crowns  of  the  plants  and  a decided  yellow  color  is  noted 
in  looking  out  over  the  field,  it  is  evident  that  irrigation  has  been 
postponed  too  long.  This  rule  holds  good  until  after  the  first  of 
October. 

To  obtain  a maximum  yield  it  is  imperative  that  strict  attention 
be  paid  to  late  irrigation.  Late  irrigation  on  soil  that  will  take 
water  evenly  should  not  exceed  a 6-hour  run.  Some  fields  are  so 
spotted  and  take  water  so  unevenly  that  it  may  be  necessary  to 
allow  water  to  run  longer.  These  are  exceptions,  however,  and  in- 
dicate a very  poor  soil  or  an  excessive  grade. 

1 Cook,  O.  F.  A New  System  of  Cotton  Culture.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  Circular  115  pp.  15-22,  March  1,  1913. 

. The  Abortion  of  Fruiting  Branches  in  Cotton.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of 

Plant  Industry,  Circular  118,  pp.  11-16,  March  22, 1913. 


EGYPTIAN  COTTON  IN  SALT  EIVER  VALLEY,  ARIZONA. 


7 


After  an  irrigation,  the  water  should  always  be  drained  off  and 
not  allowed  to  stand  in  the  lower  ])art  of  the  field,  as  this  is  not  only 
bad  for  the  cotton  but  injures  the  land.  From  observations  made 
in  1913  it  is  believed  that  some  farmers  in  the  vaUey  reduced  their 
yields  materially  by  giving  excessive  irrigation  late  in  the  season  and 
allowing  the  water  to  stand  in  a lake  at  the  lower  part  of  the  field. ^ 

After  the  first  picking,  at  least  one  or  two  irrigations  should  be 
given. 

None  of  the  soils  of  the  Salt  River  Valley  are  perfectly  uniform. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  season  practically  every  field  will  con- 
tain spots,  varying  in  extent,  where  the  plants  need  water  before  a 
general  irrigation  is  necessary.  By  throwing  a ridge  across  the  field 
and  turning  a small  head  of  water  down  between  the  rows,  the  spot 
that  is  drying  out  may  be  irrigated  without  wetting  the  rest  of  the 
field.  This  practice,  of  course,  entails  a little  extra  expense  in  irri- 
gating, but  the  uniformity  and  increased  yield  thereby  obtained  will 
more  than  balance  the  additional  cost.  Following  this  practice  in 
one  case  increased  the  yield  by  a third  of  a bale  of  lint  per  acre,  as 
compared  with  that  obtained  on  similar  soil  in  a field  not  handled 
in  this  manner. 

PICKING. 

Picking  should  begin  between  September  1 5 and  October  1 . It  is  nec- 
essary to  pick  the  crop  at  least  three  times.  Egyptian  cotton  must  be 
picked  clean — that  is,  free  from  trash — in  order  to  command  the  very 
best  price,  for  no  dependable  cleaning  device  has  been  found  which 
can  be  attached  to  the  roller  gin.  The  farmer  who  violates  this 
rule,  hoping  that  the  grader  will  overlook  dirty  cotton,  which  has 
been  picked  with  a lot  of  broken  leaves  and  squares  mixed  through 
it,  is  certain  to  be  disappointed  in  the  price  obtained  for  his  product. 

The  Egyptian  cotton  grown  in  the  Salt  River  Valley  will  doubtless 
be  graded  more  closely  every  succeeding  year.  The  associations  and 
exchanges  which  are  helping  the  growers  in  selling  their  crops  can 
not  afford  to  market  a poor  and  dirty  grade  of  cotton.  In  order  to 
find  a ready  market  for  cotton  having  so  long  a staple,  it  will  be 
necessary  that  the  community  establish  a reputation  for  the  clean- 
ness of  its  product.  To  this  end,  the  associations  must  use  much 
discrimination  in  grading,  throwing  into  the  inferior  grades  all  dirty 
cotton  as  well  as  that  which  has  been  damaged  by  frost  or  by  poor 
irrigation. 

The  different  pickings  of  Egyptian  cotton  should  be  kept  separate 
in  ginning  and  baling,  as  there  is  often  a marked  difference  in  each 
picking,  which  will  be  detected  when  the  grading  is  carefully  done. 
Frosted  cotton  should  always  be  picked  separately  and  ginned  and 
baled  apart  from  earlier  pickings.  If  a hard  frost  kills  the  plants,  it 
is  advisable  to  pick  as  soon  afterwards  as  possible  aU  cotton  that  is 
open,  thus  avoiding  mixing  the  cotton  from  bolls  which  opened  before 
with  that  from  bolls  which  opened  after  the  frost.  This  will  not  be 
necessary  if  the  field  has  been  gone  over  just  before  the  frost  and 
very  little  cotton  is  open  on  the  plants. 

Effort  should  be  made  to  time  the  pickings  so  that  the  second  pick- 
ing will  not  be  made  until  late  in  the  season.  Where  the  crop  is  very 
heavy  and  the  first  picking  is  early,  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  four 


1 When  water  is  regularly  allowed  to  stand  at  the  bottom  of  the  field  for  several  hours  after  irrigation, 
the  fiber  produced  is  apt  to  be  weak. 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  577. 


pickings,  but  it  is  believed  that  three,  properly  distributed,  will  usu- 
ally be  sufficient.  Growers  often  begin  picking  much  earlier  than  is 
necessary.  A few  open  bolls  are  mistaken  for  a good  picking.  It 
does  not  pay  to  make  the  first  picking  until  from  600  to  1,000  pounds 
of  seed  cotton  per  acre  can  be  obtained. 

Until  recently  it  was  believed  that  Americans  could  not  pick  Egyp- 
tian cotton  at  2 cents  a pound  and  make  living  wages  comparable 
with  what  could  be  made  in  picking  cotton  in  the  Southern  States. 
This  matter  has  been  closely  followed  in  southern  Arizona  during  the 
past  two  years,  and  it  is  now  fairly  certain  that  the  average  workman 
from  the  Southern  States  can  make  more  money  picking  Egyptian 
cotton  in  Arizona  than  in  picking  Upland  cotton  in  the  South.  The 
case  was  thus  stated  by  one  young  man: 

I thought  at  first  that  I could  not  pick  this  small-boll  cotton  and  was  badly  discour- 
aged, but  found  after  working  a week  that  I could  pick  200  to  225  pounds  a day  and 
do  it  easily.  You  don’t  have  to  carry  a big,  heavy  sack  around  all  the  forenoon  and 
break  your  back  picking  Egyptian  cotton,  and  you  have  only  to  pick  half  as  much  of 
it  as  short  cotton  to  make  the  same  wages  or  more. 

Two  cents  per  pound  is  a fair  price  for  picking  Egyptian  cotton, 
and  industrious  workers  can  make  as  much  as  $4  per  day,  although 
the  average  picker  will  hardly  exceed  S2.25  per  day.  The  record  so 
far  for  Arizona  is  an  average  of  270  pounds  per  day  for  six  days,  with 
a maximum  of  300  pounds,  or  $6,  for  one  day. 

The  most  important  supply  of  labor  for  cotton  picking  in  Arizona 
is  afforded  by  the  Papago  and  Pima  Indians.  There  are,  conserva- 
tively speaking,  5,000  to  7,000  people  in  these  tribes  who  promise  b}^ 
virtue  of  their  industry,  patience,  and  honesty  to  play  a most  impor- 
tant part  in  establishing  the  cotton  industry.  The  Indians  are  the 
most  satisfactory  laborers  that  can  be  had  in  Arizona  for  this  work 
and  have  done  well  wherever  they  have  been  employed.  They  are 
satisfied  with  fair  returns  for  their  labor  and  have  learned  to  like  the 
work,  although  until  recently  they  were  totally  unfamiliar  with  it. 
It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  this  labor  supply  be  developed 
thoroughly  and  that  the  Indians  be  treated  fairly. 

GINNING  AND  BALING. 

The  ginning  and  baling  of  Egyptian  cotton  should  receive  much 
attention,  since  spinners  of  this  type  of  cotton  are  accustomed  to  a 
product  which  is  much  more  carefully  handled  than  American  Upland 
cotton.  Poller  gins  must  be  used,  and  a first-class  mechanic  is  re- 
quired to  operate  the  ginning  plant.  There  should  be  no  leaves, 
seeds,  or  other  trash  in  the  cotton  when  it  goes  to  the  press.  The 
cleanness,  or  grade, ’’  is  a very  important  factor  in  the  price  paid  for 
a fancy  cotton  of  this  character. 

The  bales  should  present  a neat  appearance,  comparable  to  those 
which  are  exported  from  Egypt.  They  should  be  thoroughly  cov- 
ered with  heavy  burlap,  and  the  ends  should  be  sewed.  For  each  bale 
a large  and  representative  sample  should  be  taken  during  the  gin- 
ning, so  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  cut  open  the  bale  in  negotiating 
for  its  sale. 


o 


WASHINGTON  : GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


4/' 


j- 


IS. DEPARTMENT  GF  AGRICULTURE 


THE  MAKING  AND  FEEDING  OF  SILAGE. 

MAKING  AND  FEEDING  SILAGE  . . T.  E.  Woodward 

SILAGE  FOR  HORSES George  M.  Rommel 

SILAGE  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE  . . . W.  F.  Ward 

SILAGE  FOR  SHEEP  . . . . . E.  L.  Shaw 

MAKING  AND  FEEDING  SILAGE. 

By  T,  E.  Woodward,  of  the  L liry  Divlnon. 

SOME  POINTS  IN  FAVOR  OF  SILAGE. 

Within  the  last  30  years  silage  has  come  into  general  use  through- 
it  the  Lhiited  States,  especially  in  those  regions  where  the 
dry  industry  has  reached  its  greatest  development.  Silage  is  uni- 
•rsally  recognized  as  a good  and  cheap  feed  for  farm  stock,  and 
irticularly  so  for  cattle  and" sheep.  There  are  several  reasons  for 
e popularity  of  silage. 

1.  Silage  is  the  best  and  cheapest  form  in  which  a succulent  feed 
n be  provided  for  winter  use. 

2.  An  acre  of  corn  can  be  placed  in  the  silo  at  a cost  not  exceeding 
.at  of  shocking,  husking,  grinding,  and  shredding. 

3.  Crops  can  be  put  into  the  silo  during  weather  that  could  not  be 
dlized  in  making  hay  or  curing  fodder ; in  some  localities  this  is  an 

important  consideration. 

4.  A given  amount  of  corn  in  the  form  of  silage  will  produce  more 
lilk  than  the  same  amount  when  shocked  and  dried. 

5.  There  is  less  waste  in  feeding  silage  than  in  feeding  fodder. 
Tood  silage  properly  fed  is  all  consumed. 

6.  Silage  is  very  palatable. 

7.  Silage,  like  other  succulent  feeds,  has  a beneficial  effect  upon 
the  digestive  organs. 

8.  More  stock  can  be  kept  on  a given  area  of  land  when  silage  is 
the  basis  of  the  ration. 

Note. — Gives  methods  and  costs  of  growing  and  harvesting  silage,  feeding  value,  and 
instructions  for  filling  the  silo.  .Vdapted  for  general  circulation.  Supersedes  Farmers’ 
Bulletin  55G. 


32787°— Bull.  578-14- 


-1 


2 


farmers"  bulletin  578. 


1).  On  account  of  the  smaller  cost  for  labor,  silage  can  be  used  for 
supplementing  pastures  more  economically  than  can  soiling  crops, 
unless  only  a small  amount  of  supplementary  feed  is  required. 

10.  Converting  the  corn  crop  into  silage  clears  the  laiid  and  leaves 
it  ready  for  another  crop  sooner  than  if  the  corn  is  shocked  and 
husked. 

Because  of  these  advantages  of  silage  it  is  the  general  opinion 
among  dairy  farmers  who  have  built  silos  that  the  use  of  silage  has 
increased  milk  production  per  cow  and  has  increased  the  profits  per 
acre,  though  it  is  no  doubt  true  that  in  certain  localities  which  are 
well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  alfalfa  or  other  hays  of  good  quality, 
the  same  amount  of  food  nutrients  may  be  produced  at  less  cost  in 
the  form  of  hay  than  as  silage. 

SILAGE  CROPS. 

Almost  any  green  crop  can  be  successfully  made  into  silage  if  suffi- 
cient care  is  taken  to  force  out  the  air  from  the  material.  On  account 
of  the  difficulty,  however,  of  expelling  air  from  plants  with  a holloAV 
stem,  such  as  timothy,  oats,  and  barley,  these  crops  are  rarely  put 
into  the  silo. 

CORN. 

In  all  parts  of  the  United  States  where  the  silo  has  come  into  gen- 
eral use  the  principal  silage  crop  as  corn.  One  reason  for  this  is  that 
ordinarily  corn  will  produce  more  food  material  to  the  acre  than  any 
other  crop  which  can  be  grown.  It  is  more  easily  harvested  and  put 
into  the  silo  than  any  of  the  hay  crops,  such  as  clover,  cowpeas,  or 
alfalfa.  A^ith  the  harvesting  machinery  which  we  have  at  the  pres- 
ent time  these  crops  are  much  more  difficult  to  handle  after  being 
cut.  Furthermore,  corn  makes  an  excellent  quality  of  silage.  The 
legumes,  such  as  clover  and  alfalfa,  are  liable  to  rot  unless  special 
care  is  taken  to  pack  the  silage  thoroughly  and  force  the  air  out. 

The  only  objection  which  has  been  raised  concerning  corn  silage 
is  the  fact  that  it  contains  insufficient  protein  fully  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  animals  to  which  it  may  be  fed.  Some  persons 
have  advised  mixing  clover,  cowpeas,  or  alfalfa  with  the  corn  when 
filling  the  silo  in  order  to  correct  this  deficiency  of  protein.  Such 
a procedure  is  not  to  be  advised,  however,  if  it  is  possible  to  cure  the 
clover  or  other  crop  into  hay,  which  usually  can  be  done  if  hay  caps 
are  used.  Since  some  dry  forage  should  always  be  fed  Avith  the  silage, 
it  is  better  to  use  the  leguminous  hay  in  this  Avay  rather  than  to 
coiiA^ert  the  crop  into  silage. 

VARIETY  TO  PLANT. 

The  best  A^ariety  of  corn  to  plant  is  that  Avhich  Avill  mature  and 
yield  the  largest  amount  of  grain  to  the  acre,  since  the  grain  is  the 


THE  MAKING  AND  FEEDING  OF  SILAGE. 


3 


most  valuable  part  of  the  corn  plant.  The  variety  commonly  raised 
in  any  particular  locality  for  grain  will  also  be  the  most  satisfactory 
10  grow  for  silage.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  table  below,  taken  from 
the  First  Annual  Eeport  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  College,  (>8  per 
cent  of  the  digestible  food  materials  present  in  the  corn  plant  are 
found  in  the  ears  and  37  per  cent  in  the  stover. 


Yield  of  digcstihle  matter  in  corn. 


Constituent. 

Yield  per  acre. 

Ears. 

Stover. 

Total  crop. 

Protein 

Pounds. 

244 

2, 301 
125 

Pounds. 

83 

1,473 

22 

Pounds. 

327 

3,774 

147 

Carbohydrates  . . 

Pat. . . ! 

Total 

2,670 

1,578 

4,248 

Fig.  1.— a field  of  good  corn. 


CULTIVATION  AND  YIELD. 

In  some  sections  it  is  a common  practice  to  plant  the  corn  a little 
thicker  when  raised  for  silage  than  for  grain.  Weeds  should  be 
kept  out,  or  they  will  be  cut  with  the  corn  and  may  impair  the  quality 
of  the  silage.  The  amount  of  silage  that  can  be  obtained  from  an 
acre  of  corn  will  vary  from  I to  20  tons  or  more.  A oO-bushel  per 


4 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  578. 


acre  crop  of  corn  will  yield  about  8 to  12  tons  of  silage  per  acre, 
depending  upon  the  amount  of  foliage  and  stalk  that  accompanies 
the  ear.  Southern  varieties  of  corn  as  a rule  carry  a larger  propor- 
tion of  the  plant  in  the  form  of  stalk  and  leaves  than  do  the  northern- 
grown  varieties. 

TIME  TO  HARVEST. 

Corn  should  be  harvested  for  the  silo  at  about  the  same  time  tliat 
it  is  harvested  for  fodder — that  is,  when  the  grain  has  become  glazed 
and  the  lower  leaves  of  the  stalk  have  turned  brown.  The  following 
table  taken  from  the  Eighth  x\nnual  Report  of  the  New  York  Experi- 
ment Station  Avill  furnish  valuable  information  as  to  the  proper  time 
to  cut  corn  for  the  silo : 

ChcmivdJ  clKingcs  during  groirth  of  corn  phntt. 


Stage  of  growth. 


Yield  per  acre. 

Tasseled 
July  30. 

Silked 
Aug.  9. 

Milk 
Aug.  21. 

Glazed 
Sept.  7. 

Ripe 
Sept.  23. 

Total  yield ^ 

Pounds. 
18, 045 

Pounds. 

25,745 

Pounds. 
32, 600 

Pounds. 
32, 295 

Pounds. 

28, 460 

Water 

16, 426 
1,619 

22, 666 

27,957 

4,643 

25.093 

20,542 

7,918 

Dry  matter 

3,078 

201.30 

7, 202 

302.  48 

Asii 

138.91 

232. 15 

■ 364.23 

Albuminoids 

239U7 

436.  76 

478.  69 

643. 86 

677.  78 

Crude  fiber 

514. 19 

872. 93 

1,261.97 
2,441.29 
228. 90 

1,755.85 

4,239.82 

1,734.04 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

653.91 

1,399.26 
167.  75 

4, 827.  60 
314. 34 

Fat 

72.  20 

259. 99 

The  table  shows  that  there  is  a steady  increase  in  the  amount  of 
dry  matter  and  food  ingredients  in  the  corn  plant  up  to  the  time  it 
is  ripe.  This  indicates  very  plainly  that  immature  corn  is  inferior 
to  mature  corn,  whether  fed  fresh  or  as  silage. 

Silage  made  from  immature  corn  is  not  only  less  nutritious  but  also 
more  acid  than  that  made  from  more  matui-e  corn.  The  corn  should 
not  be  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  ripe  and  diy,  however,  because 
the  stalk  and  foliage  are  rendered  more  difficult  to  digest,  and, 
besides,  the  corn  can  not  be  packed  into  the  silo  tightly  enough  to 
jirevent  “ fire-fanging  ” without  using  excessive  amounts  of  water. 
In  case  the  corn  is  frozen  before  it  is  properly  matured  for  cutting, 
it  should  be  harvested  at  once  before  it  has  had  time  to  dry  out  to 
any  great  extent.  Enough  water  should  be  added  to  replace  that 
lost  by  evaporation  through  standing  in  the  field  after  frosting. 

SORGHUMS. 

Sorghums,  both  saccharine  and  nonsaccharine,  are  readily  made 
into  silage.  On  account  of  their  superiority  to  corn  as  drought- 
resistant  crops  they  are  more  dependable  and  yield  more  in  those 


THE  MAKING  AND  FEEDING  OF  SILAGE. 


5 


regions  of  the  West  Avhere  the  rainfall  is  too  light  or  irregular  for 
a good  groAvth  of  corn.  The  Kansas  station  reports  in  Circular  ‘28 
that  if  the  sorghums  are  harvested  at  the  proper  stage  of  maturity — 
that  is,  Avhen  the  seed  has  become  hard — tl'oy  Avill  make  silage  which 
is  less  acid  and  moi’e  palatable  than  silage  made  from  corn.  Further- 
more, its  experiments  indicate  that  there  is  little  difference  in  the 
feeding  values  of  these  silages.  It  is  all-important  that  the  sorghums 
be  harvested  at  the  proper  stage  of  maturity  if  the  best  results  are 
to  be  secured.  A mixture  of  corn  and  sorghum  has  proved  satis- 
factory in  some  localities  Avhere  the  rrdnfall  was  so  variable  as  to 
make  the  corn  crop  uncertain. 

CLOVER. 

Clover  is  a successful  silage  crop  yielding  a palatable  product  high 
in  protein.  The  silage  made  from  clover  as  from  other  legumes  has 
an  objectionable  odor,  necessitating  particular  care  in  feeding  to 
avoid  tainting  the  milk.  It  does  not  pack  so  Avell  as  corn,  so  great 
care  should  be  exercised  in  the  tramping  of  the  silage  at  the  time  of 
filling,  and  the  depth  of  the  silo  should  also  receiA^e  particular  atten- 
tion. A shalloAV  silo  Avill  not  proA^e  satisfactory.  CloA^er  should  be 
chopped  before  siloing  as  a matter  of  convenience  in  feeding  and 
also  to  secure  more  thorough  packing,  although  it  can  be  placed  in  the 
silo  Avithout  chopping.  Clover  should  be  harvested  at  the  same  time 
as  for  making  into  hay — that  is,  Avhen  in  full  bloom  and  some  of  the 
first  heads  are  dead.  As  stated  elseAvhere,  it  is  usually  inadvisable 
to  make  clover  into  silage  if  it  can  be  made  into  hay,  as  is  the  case 
under  most  conditions.  It  is  better  practice  to  raise  corn  for  silage 
and  use  the  cloAer  in  the  form  of  hay  as  a supplement  to  the  silage. 

COWPEAS,  ALFALFA,  AND  SOY  BEANS. 

All  these  crops  can  be  successfully  made  into  silage  by  exercising 
the  same  precautions  as  Avith  clover.  They  should  be  cut  at  the  same 
time  as  for  haymaking.  IIoAveA-er,  it  is  ordinarily  preferable,  as  Avith 
clover,  to  make  them  into  hay  rather  than  silage.  The  fermentations 
Avhich  take  place  in  silage  made  of  legumes  cause  a greater  loss  of 
nutritiA^e  material  than  Avith  corn  silage. 

Corn  husks  and  pea  Aunes  from  canning  factories,  beet  pulp  and 
other  by-products  are  also  used  in  certain  localities  for  filling  the  silo. 

HARVESTING  THE  CROP  AND  FILLING  THE  SILO. 

HARVESTING  THE  CORN. 

Corn  for  the  silo  can  be  cut  either  by  hand  or  by  machine.  Hand 
cutting  is  practiced  on  farms  Avhere  the  amount  of  corn  to  be  har- 
vested is  so  small  as  to  make  the  expense  of  purchasing  a corn  har- 


6 FARMERS^  BULLETIN  578. 

vester  too  great  to  justify  its  use.  Hand  cutting  is  also  resorted  to 
through  necessity  when  the  corn  is  down  or  lodged  in  such  a manner 
as  to  prevent  the  use  of  the  machine.  This  method  of  cutting,  how- 
ever, is  slow  and  laboriouc  and  there  are  probably  few  localities  now 
where  the  purchase  of  a harvester  would  not  be  a profitable  invest- 
ment. In  case  the  exj)ense  is  considered  too  great  to  be  borne  by  one 
farmer,  two  or  more  could  advantageously  purchase  a machine 
together. 

In  using  harvester  it  will  be  found  a great  advantage  to  make 
the  bundles  rather  small.  This  will  take  more  twine,  but  the  extra 
expense  will  be  more  than  offset  by  the  ease  of  handling  the  bundles 


Fig.  2. — Corn  harvester  at  work. 

and  in  feeding  them  into  the  silage  cutter.  Two  or  three  horses, 
preferably  three,  and  one  man  will  be  required  to  run  the  harvester, 
and  they  should  be  able  to  cut  about  G acres  a day.  The  harvester 
should  not  get  so  far  ahead  of  the  haulers  that  the  corn  will  dry  out 
to  any  considerable  extent.  (See  fig.  2.) 

HAULING  TO  THE  CUTTER. 

This  is  ordinarily  done  with  the 'common  flat  hay  frames.  An 
objection  to  their  use  is  that  it  is  necessary  to  lift  the  green  corn 
fodder  to  a considerable  height  in  loading,  which  is  hard  v/ork.  A 


THE  MAKING  AND  FEEDING  OF  SILAGE. 


7 


low-wheeled  wagon  is  preferable  to  a high-wheeled  one.  A low-down 
rack  quite  commonly  used  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States  can  be 
easily  made.  (See  hg.  3.)  The  following  are  the  directions  for 
making  this  rack,  taken  from  F armers’  Bulletin  292 : 

The  rack  * consists  of  two  4 by  G inch  bed  pieces,  18  or  20  feet  in 

length,  bolted  together  at  one  end  to  form  a V.  On  top  of  these  timbers  is  built 
a rack  G feet  in  width.  The  bottom  of  this  rack  is  about  8 feet  long.  The  end 
boards  are  4 feet  high,  built  flaring  so  they  do  not  quite  touch  the  wheels.  The 
apex  of  the  V is  suspended  below  the  front  axle  of  an  ordinary  farm  wagon  by 
means  of  a long  kingbolt.  The  other  ends  are  attached  below  the  hind  axle 
by  U-shaped  clevises.  The  materials  needed  in  its  construction  are  80  board 
feet  of  4 by  G inch  plank,  9G  feet  of  boards  1 by  12  inches,  22  feet  of  lumber 
2 by  4 inches,  1 long  kingbolt,  2 stirrup  rods,  and  bolts  and  nails. 

The  load  should  be  as  large  as  possible,  especially  when  the  haul  is 
for  some  distance.  This  is  a matter  which  rarely  receives  sufficient 
attention  by  persons  filling  silos,  and  in  consequence  the  expense  of 
filling  becomes  unnecessarily  high. 


Pig.  3. — A low-down  rack  suitable  for  hauling  corn  to  cutter. 

CUTTING  THE  SILAGE. 

THE  CUTTER. 

There  are  on  the  market  several  makes  of  silage  cutters  that  will 
give  satisfaction.  The  capacity  of  the  machine  to  be  purchased  is 
an  important  consideration  which  should  not  be  overlooked.  Many 
persons  make  the  mistake  of  getting  a cutter  which  is  too  small, 
thus  making  the  operation  of  filling  the  silo  very  slow  and  interfering 
with  the  continuous  employment  of  the  entire  force  of  men.  It  is 
better  to  get  a machine  large  enough  so  that  every  one  will  be  able 
to  keep  busy  all  the  time.  The  larger  cutters  are  equipped  with 
self-feeders,  a labor-saving  device  which  the  smaller  sizes  lack. 
Other  factors  to  be  taken  into  account  in  purchasing  a cutter  are 
the  amount  of  work  to  be  done  and  the  power  available.  Of  course, 
for  the  filling  of  a very  small  silo  it  would  not  be  wise  to  buy  a large 
machine.  Neither  would  it  be  advisable  to  overload  the  engine  or 
motor  by  using  a cutter  which  is  too  large  for  the  power  available. 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  578. 


THE  ELEVATOR. 

Two  types  of  elevators  are  in  use — the  old-style  chain  carrier  and 
the  blower.  (See  fig.  4.)  The  chain  carrier  requires  less  powei-.  ])ut 
is  harder  to  set  up  and  there  is  more  litter  around  when  it  is  used, 
especially  in  windy  weather.  For  these  reasons  the  blower  is  now 
fast  displacing  the  carrier. 


Fig.  4. — Silage  cutter  with  chain  carrier. 

The  bloAver  should  be  placed  as  nearly  perpendicular  as  possible  so 
as  to  reduce  to  the  minimum  the  friction  of  the  cut  corn  upon  the 
inside  of  the  pipe  and  lessen  the  danger  of  clogging.  (See  fig.  5.) 

POWER  REQUIRED, 

The  poAver  necessary  to  operate  the  cutter  Avill  depend  upon  its 
size  and  Avhether  the  elevator  is  a chain  carrier  or  a bloAver  and 
upon  the  rate  of  feeding.  It  is  possible  to  feed  sloAvly  and  to  get 
along  Avith  less  poAver  than  Avould  be  required  Avith  full  feeding. 


THE  MAKING  AND  FEEDING  OF  SILAGE. 


9 


As  a rule,  however,  a joerson  should  have  power  sufficient  to  run  the 
cutter  at  full  capacity,  and  even  a little  surplus  is  advisable.  The 
power  required  for  a cutter  and  blower,  if  a gasoline  engine  is  used,  is 
about  1 horsepower  for  each  1-inch  length  in  the  cutting  cylinder; 
that  is,  a 15-inch  cutter  will  take  a 15-horsepower  engine,  an  18-inch 
cutter  will  require  an  18-horsepower  engine,  and  so  on.  If  a steam 


Fig.  5. — Silage  cutter  with  blower. 

engine  is  employed,  the  power  should  be  at  least  two-thirds  of  that 
indicated  for  the  gasoline  engine. 

LENGTH  TO  CUT. 

The  usual  length  of  cutting  varies  from  one-half  to  1 inch.  The 
latter  is  considered  a little  too  long,  since  pieces  of  this  length  will 
neither  pack  so  closely  in  the  silo  nor  be  so  completely  consumed 
Avhen  fed  as  Avill  the  shorter  lengths.  On  the  other  hand,  the  longer 
the  pieces  the  more  rapidly  can  the  corn  be  run  through  the  cutter, 
82787°— Bull.  578—14 2 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  578. 


PACKING  THE  SILAGE. 


Ordinarily  the  blower  or  carrier  empties  the  cut  corn  into  the  top 
of  the  silo  and  there  are  one  or  more  men  in  the  silo  to  distribute  and 

tramp  the  material.  Unless  there  is  some 
one  to  do  this  the  cut  material  will  be 
thrown  too  much  in  one  place  and  the 
leaves,  stalks,  and  grain  Avill  not  be  uni- 
forml}^  distributed  throughout  the  silo. 
The  sides  should  be  kept  higher  than  the 
center,  and  the  whole  surface  .kept  well 
tramped.  Much  of  the  tramping  should  be 
done  close  to  the  wall. 

Various  contrivances  have  been  used  for 
distributing  the  silage.  The  one  commonly 
recommended  for  this  purpose,  however,  is 
a metal  pipe  similar  to  the  one  in  which  the 
cut  corn  is  elevated,  but  put  together 
loosely  in  sections.  The  corn  from  the 
blower  passes  down  this  pipe  into  the  silo, 
and  being  loosel}^  put  together  it  can  be 
swung  so  that  the  material  can  be  placed 
anywhere  in  the  silo.  (See  fig.  6.)  With 
this  contrivance  no  Avork  with  a fork  is 
necessary  and  one  man  can  do  the  work  of 
tAvo  or  three  and  do  it  more  easily.  There 
is  very  little  loose  material  flying  about  in 
the  silo  and  the  work  is  much  cleaner. 
Another  adA^antage  is  a lessening  of  the 
danger  of  being  struck  by  some  foreign 
object  Avhich  might  pass  up  the  blower 
pipe.  HeaAw  kniA^es  of  the  cutter  have 
been  knoAvn  to  j^ass  through  the  blower 
and  into  the  silo.  As  has  been  mentioned, 
this  pipe  is  put  together  in  sections,  so  that 
as  the  silage  rises  in  the  silo  the  sections 
can  be  readily  detached  as  required. 

ADDING  WATER. 


Fig.  6. 


-Jointed-pipe  silage  dis- 
tributor. 


In  case  the  material  has  become  too  dry 
before  it  is  put  into  the  silo,  Avater  should  be  added  to  supply  the 
deficiency  of  moisture  necessary  to  make  the  silage  pack  properly. 
Unless  it  is  Avell  packed  the  silage  AAnll  “fire-fang”  or  deteriorate 
through  the  groAvth  of  mold.  Enough  water  should  be  added  to 


THE  MAKING  AND  FEEDING  OF  SILAGE. 


11 


restore  the  moisture  content  of  the  corn  to  wliat  it  woultl  be  if  cut  at 
the  proper  stage.  The  water  ina}-  be  added  by  running  directly  into 
the  silo  b}^  means  of  a hose  or  by  running  through  the  blower.  It  is 
claimed  that  by  running  it  into  the  blower  the  water  is  more  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  the  cut  corn. 

It  seems  to  be  good  practice,  no  matter  Avhat  the  condition  of  the 
corn  is,  to  wet  down  the  material  thoroughly  at  the  top  of  the  silo 
when  through  filling.  This  will  help  to  })ack  the  top  layer  and 
lessen  the  amount  of  spoiled  silage  on  to]). 

COVERING  THE  SILAGE. 

Several  3"ears  ago  it  was  a common  jiractice  to  cover  the  silage  with 
some  material,  such  as  dirt  or  cut  straAv,  in  order  to  prevent  the  top 
layer  from  spoiling.  At  present  when  any  provision  at  all  is  made 
for  this  purpose  it  consists  usually  in  merely  running  in  on  top 
cornstalks  from  which  the  ears  have  been  removed.  By  this  method 
some  of  the  corn  grain  is  saved.  The  heavy  green  cornstalks  pack 
much  better  than  straw  does  and  so  exclude  the  air  more  effectually. 
The  top  is  thoroughly  tramped  and  then  wet  down.  Sometimes  oats 
are  sown  on  the  top  before  wetting.  The  heat  generated  by  the 
fermenting  mass  will  cause  the  oats  to  sprout  quickly  and  form  a 
dense  sod  which  serves  to  shut  off  the  air  from  the  silage  beneath, 
and  in  consequence  only  a very  shallow  layer  spoils.  Whenever  pos- 
sible, it  is  better  to  begin  feeding  from  the  silo  as  soon  as  it  is  filled ; 
by  doing  this  no  covering  is  necessary  and  there  should  be  no  loss  on 
account  of  spoiling. 

LABOR  AND  TEAMS  REQUIRED. 

The  labor  and  teams  to  be  used  will  of  course  depend  upon  the  help 
available,  the  length  of  haul,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  machinei\y. 
With  plenty  of  help,  a short  haul,  and  good  machinery  the  following 
distribution  of  labor  might  well  be  used : 

1 man  and  3 horses  to  bind  the  corn. 

3 or  4 men  to  load  the  corn. 

3 men  and  6 horses  to  haul. 

1 man  to  help  unload. 

1 man  to  feed  the  cutter. 

1 or  2 men  to  work  in  the  silo. 

1 man  to  tend  the  engine,  if  steam  engine  is  used. 

Total,  11  to  13  men,  9 horses,  and  3 wagons. 

The  least  amount  of  help  which  it  would  be  possible  to  work  to 
advantage  might  be  arranged  as  follows  : 

1 man  and  2 horses  to  bind  the  corn. 

2 men  to  help  teamsters  load. 

2 men  and  4 horses  to  haul  and  unload. 

1 man  to  feed. 

1 man  in  the  silo. 

Total,  7 men,  6 horses,  and  2 wagons. 


12 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  578. 


A good  manager  is  required  to  arrange  , the  help  so  that  each  man 
and  team  can  do  the  most  efficient  work.  Without  careful  attention 
to  this  matter  the  operation  of  filling  the  silo  becomes  needlessly 
expensive. 

COST  OF  HARVESTING  AND  FILLING. 

It  is  not  i^ossible  to  set  any  definite  figure  as  the  cost  of  filling  the 
silo  because  of  the  great  variation  in  conditions  in  different  parts  of 
the  country.  But  in  order  to  give  some  idea  of  the  probable  cost 
a fcAV  figures  are  taken  from  Farmers’  Bulletin  292.  The  investiga- 
tion reported  in  this  bulletin  included  the  work  done  upon  31  farms  in 
Wisconsin  and  Michigan.  The  labor  of  each  man  was  rated  at  15 
cents  2>er  hour  and  the  same  value  placed  upon  each  team  of  two 
horses.  Engine  hire  was  estimated  at  $1.50  per  day,  including  the 
engineer.  Twine  Avas  rated  at  111  cents  a pound,  coal  at  $5  a ton, 
and  gasoline  at  13  cents  a gallon.  The  farmers  owned  the  cutters. 
In  this  inATstigation  the  cost  per  tOn  A^aried  from  16  to  86  cents. 

InAxstigations  conducted  by  the  Dairy  Division  during  the  past 
feAV  years  Avith  87  silos  in  A^arious  parts  of  the  United  States  indicate 
the  cost  of  filling  to  be  an  average  of  87  cents  per  ton.  This  does 
not  include  interest  on  investment  nor  depreciation  of  machinery  or 
silos. 

COOPERATION  IN  SILO  FILLING. 

The  high  cost  of  silo-filling  machinery  makes  it  oftentimes  advis- 
able for  seA^eral  farmers  to  cooperate  in  the  purchase  of  a cutter  and 
engine,  or  at  least  a cutter,  since  an  engine  is  more  easily  rented  than 
a cutter.  By  varying  the  time  of  planting  in  the  spring  each  man 
can  get  his  silo  filled  Avhen  the  corn  is  at  the  proper  stage  of  maturity. 
Besides  this  the  farmers  can  help  one  another  in  filling,  so  that  there 
need  be  a very  small  cash  outlay. 

TOTAL  COST  OF  SILAGE. 

As  Avith  the  cost  of  filling  the  silo,  no  definite  figure  can  be  set  as 
to  the  cost  of  silage.  This  Avill  depend  upon  the  yield  per  acre, 
the  cost  of  groAving  an  acre,  and  the  cost  of  filling.  SeA^eral  years 
ago  the  cost  Avas  Auiriousl}^  estimated  at  from  $1  to  $1.50  per  ton. 
At  ])resent  this  is  much  too  Ioav.  The  aforesaid  data  collected 
by  the  Dairy  Division  on  the  filling  of  87  silos  in  various  parts 
of  the  country  shoAV  the  cost  of  groAving  the  silage  crop  to  aver- 
age $1.58  per  ton.  This  includes  interest  on  iiiA^estment  in  land  or 
rental  price,  as  the  case  may  be,  but  does  not  include  interest  on  the 
cost  of  equipment  nor  the  depreciation  of  the  equipment.  This  $1.58 
added  to  the  87  cents,  Avhich  represents  the  cost  of  filling,  makes  the 
total  cost  of  the  silage  $2.15  per  ton.  The  cost  of  the  silage  for  the 
individual  farms  varied  fi’om  $1.10  to  $5.-12  per  ton.  In  general,  it 


THE  MAKING  AND  FEEDING  OF  SILAGE. 


13 


may  be  stated  that  $1.50  to  $1:  per  ton  represents  the  limits  between 
which  most  of  the  silage  is  produced. 

LOSSES  OF  FOOD  MATERIAL  IN  THE  SILO. 

When  any  crop  is  made  into  silage  certain  fermentation  takes 
i^lace,  Avhicli  results  in  the  production  of  a considerable  amount  of 
heat  and  the  consequent  loss  of  food  material.  The  extent  of  this 
fermentation  is  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  air  in  the  silo.  The 
more  air  there  is  present  the  higher  will  be  the  temperature  of  fer- 
mentation and  the  greater  the  loss  of  food  ingredients.  Fermenta- 
tion will  continue  until  all  the  oxygen  of  the  air  has  been  used  up  or 
has  been  displaced  by  carbon  dioxid.  In  the  deep  silos  of  the  present 
time  the  pressure  is  so  great  that  very  little  air  is  left  in  the  silo; 
consequently  the  losses  of  food  ingredients  are  reduced  to  a minimum. 
As  before  mentioned,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  pressing  out  this 
air  in  crops  with  a hollow  stem,  they  are  seldom  put  in  the  silo. 

Some  experiments  conducted  at  the  Wisconsin  station  show  that  the 
losses  in  the  siloing  of  corn  are  not  nearly  so  great  as  in  the.  field 
curing  of  corn  fodder.  According  to  Prof.  Woll,  in  modern,  well- 
built,  deep  silos  the  loss  should  not  exceed  10  per  cent.  More  food 
material  can  be  saved  by  putting  the  corn  crop  into  the  silo  than  by 
harvesting  and  storing  it  in  any  other  way. 

FEEDING  VALUE  OF  SILAGE. 

COMPOSITION. 

The  chemical  composition  and  nutritive  value  of  silage  will  vary 
according  to  the  crop  from  which  it  is  made,  the  degree  of  maturity 
of  the  crop,  and  other  factors.  The  figures  in  the  following  table, 
taken  from  Henry’s  “ Feeds  and  Feeding,”  show  the  average  amount 
of  digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds  of  silage  and  other  succulent 
feeds : 


Crop. 

Total 

dry 

matter. 

Dige 

Protein. 

istible  dry  m 

Carbohy- 

drates. 

atter. 

Fat. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Green  fodder  corn 

20.7 

1.0 

12.2 

0.4 

Corn  silage 

26.4 

1.4 

14.2 

.7 

Green  sorghum  fodder 

20.6 

. .6 

11.6 

.3 

Sorghum  silage 

23.9 

.1 

13.5 

.2 

Uncured  red  clover 

29.2 

2.9 

13.6 

.7 

Clover  silage 

28.0 

1.5 

9.2 

.5 

Uncured  soy  bean 

24.9 

3.1 

11.0 

.5 

Soy-bean  silage 

25.8 

2.7 

9.6 

1.3 

Uncured  cowpeas 

16.4 

1.8 

8.7 

.2 

Cowpea  vine  silage 

20.7 

1.5 

8.6 

.9 

Pasture  grass 

20.0 

2.5 

10.1 

.5 

Oats  and  peas  (imcured) 

20.3 

1.8 

10.2 

.4 

Mangels 

9.1 

1.0 

5.5 

.2 

Sugar  beets 

13.5 

1.3 

9.8 

.1 

Sugar-beet  pulp  (wet) 

10.2 

.5 

7.7 

Prickly  pear 

15.8 

.4 

6.2 

.2 

14 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  578. 


It  will  be  observed  that  about  three-fourths  of  the  total  weight  of 
silage  consists  of  water.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that  both  corn  and 
sorghum  contain  a large  amount  of  carbohydrates  in  proportion  to 
the  protein.  Silage  is  a bulky,  succulent  feed  with  a wide  nutritive 
ratio,  and  for  these  reasons  it  will  give  the  best  results  when  fed 
with  some  other  feed  richer  in  dry  matter  and  in  protein. 

SUCCULENCE. 

In  feeding  cattle  it  is  quite  important  that  the  ration  include  some 
succulent  material,  such  as  fresh  grass,  root  crops,  or  silage.  A feed 
containing  a large  amount  of  water  in  the  form  of  natural  plant 
juices  is  not  only  more  easily  digested  but  is  also  more  palatable  and, 
besides,  serves  the  useful  purpose  of  keeping  the  whole  system  of 
the  animal  in  good  condition.  A silage-fed  animal  is  rarely  troubles ! 
with  constipation  or  other  digestive  disturbances,  the  coat  is  notice- 
ably sleek  and  soft,  and  the  skin  is  soft  and  pliable.  It  is  a well- 
known  fact  that  a cow  usually  reaches  her  maximum  production  when 
she  has  access  to  a good  pasture.  The  best  and  cheapest  substitute  for 
fresh  pasture  grass  during  the  fall  and  winter  is  silage. 

PALATABILITY. 

No  rough  feed  is  more  palatable  than  good  corn  silage.  Sometimes, 
however,  a cow  will  not  eat  silage  readily  until  she  has  acquired  a 
taste  for  it;  this  may  require  several  days.  But  silage  is  not  pe- 
culiar in  this  respect,  for  it  has  been  observed  that  range  horses  or 
cattle  shipped  into  the  corn  belt  refuse  corn  the  first  time  it  is 
offered  to  them.  The  quality  of  palatability  is  of  great  importance, 
as  it  induces  a large  consumption  and  stimulates  the  secretion  of 
digestive  juices. 


SILAGE  FOR  DAIRY  CATTLE. 

Silage  has  been  found  to  be  particularly  well  adapted  as  a feed  for 
dairy  cows  and  as  a consequence  silos  are  more  numerous  upon  farms 
devoted  to  dairying  than  upon  any  other  kind  of  farms.  In  many 
sections  silage  has  come  to  be  the  dairy  farmer’s  main  reliance  for 
cow  feed  in  winter.  • 

SUPPLEMENTARY  FEEDS. 

AVhile  silage  is  an  excellent  feed,  it  is  not  a complete  one  for  dairy 
stock.  It  is  too  bulky  and  watery  and  contains  insufficient  protein 
and  mineral  matter  to  meet  fully  the  requirements  of  the  dairy  cow. 
It  should  be  combined  with  some  leguminous  hay,  such  as  clover, 
cowpeas,  or  alfalfa.  These  will  tend  to  correct  the  deficiencies  of  the 
silage  in  dry  matter,  protein,  and  mineral  constituents.  A ration  of 
silage  and,  say,  alfalfa  hay  alone  is  satisfactory,  however,  only  for 


THE  MAKING  AND  FEEDIN(i  OF  SILAGE. 


15 


cows  which  are  dry  or  only  a small  amount  of  milk  and  for 

heifers  and  bnlls.  Cows  in  full  milk  require  some  concentrated  feed 
in  addition  to  ha}^  and  silage,  as  they  can  not  consume  enough  of 
these  feeds  to  keep  up  a large  floAy  of  milk  and  maintain  body  weight. 


AMOUNT  TO  FEED. 

The  amount  of  silage  to  feed  a cow  Avill  depend  upon  the  capacity 
of  the  animal  to  consume  feed.  She  should  be  fed  as  much  as  she  will 
clean  up  without  waste  when  consumed  along  with  her  hay  and  grain. 
Kaise  or  lower  the  amount  until  the  i^roper  quantity  is  ascertained. 
Generally  speaking,  a good  cow  should  be  fed  just  short  of  the  limit 
of  her  appetite.  If  she  refuses  any  of  her  feed  it  should  be  reduced 
at  once.  The  small  breeds  will  eat  25  or  30  pounds  per  day;  the 
large  breeds  40  or  more;  and  the  medium-sized  ones  amounts  yary- 
ing  between. 

RATIONS. 

Ironclad  directions  for  feeding  cows  can  not  be  giyen.  In  general, 
howeyer,  the}"  should  be  supplied  with  all  the  roughage  they  will 
clean  up  with  grain  in  prpportion  to  butterfat  produced.  The  hay 
will  ordinarily  range  between  5 and  12  pounds  per  cow  per  day 
Ay  hen  fed  in  connection  Ayith  silage.  For  Holsteins  1 pound  of  con- 
centrates for  each  4 jiounds  of  milk  produced  Ayill  proye  about  right. 
For  Jerseys  1 pound  for  each  3 pounds  of  milk  or  less  Avill  come 
nearer  meeting  the  requirements.  The  grain  for  other  breeds  Avill 
yary  betAA^een  these  tAyo  according  to  the  quality  of  milk  produced. 
A good  rule  is  to  feed  seyen  times  as  much  grain  as  there  is  butterfat 
produced. 

The  folloAving  rations  haA^e  been  found  satisfactory: 

For  a 1,300-pound  coav  yielding  40  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.5 


per  cent : 

Pounds. 

Silage -40 

CTover.  co^ypea.  or  alfalfa  hay ^ 10 

Grain  mixture 10 


For  the  same  coav  yielding  20  pounds  of  3.5  per  cent  milk: 

. Pounds. 


Silage 40 

Clover,  cowpea,  or  alfalfa  hay 5 

Grain  mixture 5 


For  a 900-pound  coav  yielding  30  pounds  of  5 per  cent  milk: 

Pounds. 


Silage 30 

Clover,  cowpea,  or  alfalfa  hay 10 

Grain  mixture ,,  11 


16 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  578. 


For  the  same  coav  yielding  15  pounds  of  5 per  cent  milk: 


Pounds. 

Silage RO 

Clover,  cowpea,  or  alfalfa  liay ! 8 

Grain  mixture 5 


A good  grain  mixture  to  be  used  in  a ration  which  includes  silage 
and  some  sort  of  leguminous  hay  is  composed  of — 


Parts. 

Corn  chop 4 

Wheat  bran 1 2 

Linseed-oil  meal  or  cottonseed  meal 1 


In  case  the  hay  used  is  not  of  this  kind  some  of  the  corn  chop  may 
be  replaced  by  linseed  or  cottonseed  meal.  In  many  instances  brew- 
ers’ dried  grains  or  crushed  oats  may  be  profitably  substituted  for 
the  bran,  and  oftentimes  gluten  products  can  be  used  to  advantage 
in  place  of  bran  or  oil  meals. 

TIME  TO  FEED. 

The  time  to  feed  silage  is  directly  after  milking  or  at  least  several 
hours  before  milking.  If  fed  immediately  before  milking  the  silage 
odors  may  pass  through  the  cow’s  body  into  the  milk.  .Besides, 
the  milk  may  receive  some  taints  directly  from  the  stable  air.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  feeding  is  done  subsequent  to  milking,  the  volatile 
silage  odors  Avill  have  been  thrown  off  before  the  next  milking  hour. 
Silage  is  usually  fed  twice  a day. 

Many  objections  have  been  made  to  the  feeding  of  silage,  some 
condenseries  even  refusing  to  let  their  patrons  use  it.  These  objec- 
tions are  becoming  less  common,  since  milk  from  cows  fed  silage  in  a 
proper  manner  is  in  no  way  impaired  ; furthermore  there  is  nothing 
about  silage  that  will  impair  the  health  of  the  animals. 

FEEDING  FROZEN  SILAGE. 

Frozen  silage  must  be  thawed  before  feeding.  If  it  is  then  given 
immediately  to  the  cows  before  decomposition  sets  in  no  harm  will 
result  from  feeding  this  kind  of  silage ; neither  is  the  nutritive  value 
known  to  be  changed  in  any  way. 

SILAGE  FOR  CALVES,  BULLS,  AND  DRY  COWS. 

Calves  may  be  fed  silage  as  soon  as  they  are  old  enough  to  eat  it. 

It  is  perhaps  of  greater  importance  that  the  silage  be  free  from 
mold  or  decay  when  given  to  calves  than  when  given  to  mature  stock. 
They  may  be  given  at  all  times  all  the  silage  they  will  eat  up  clean. 
Yearling  calves  will  consume  about  one-half  as  much  as  mature 
stock;  that  is,  from  15  to  20  or  more  pounds  a day.  When  supple- 
mented with  some  good  leguminous  hay,  little,  if  any,  grain  will  be 
required  to  keep  the  calves  in  a thrifty,  growing  condition. 


THE  MAKING  AND  FEEDING  OF  SILAGE. 


17 


There  is  a decided  opinion  among  some  breeders  of  dairy  stock 
that  a large  allowance  of  silage  is  detrimental  to  the  breeding  quali- 
ties of  the  bnll.  Whether  there  is  any  scientific  foundation  for  this 
opinion  remains  to  be  determined.  Pending  further  investigations, 
however,  it  is  advisable  to  limit  the  allowance  to  about  12  pounds 
of  silage  a day  for  each  1,000  pounds  of  live  weight.  When  fed  in 
this  amount  silage  is  thought  to  be  a good,  cheap,  and  safe  feed  for 
bulls.  It  should  of  course  be  supplemented  with  hay,  and  with  a 
small  allowance  of  grain  also  in  the  case  of  bulls  doing  active  service 
or  growing  rajiidly. 

Cows  when  dry  will  consume  almost  as  much  roughage  as  when 
they  are  milked.  Silage  may  well  form  the  principal  ingredient  of 
the  ration;  in  fact,  with  25  to  40  pcunds  of  silage  and  a small  supple- 
mentary feed  of  clover,  cowjiea,  or  alfalfa  hay,  say  5 to  G pounds  a 
day,  the  cows  will  keep  in  good  flesh  and  even  make  some  gain.  Cows 
in  thin  flesh  should  receive  in  addition  a small  amount  of  grain. 
Silage  will  tend  to  keep  the  whole  system  in  good  condition  and  in 
this  way  lessen  the  troubles  incident  to  parturition. 

SILAGE  FOR  SI  MMER  FEEDING. 

One  of  the  most  trying  seasons  of  the  year  for  the  dairy  cow  is  the 
latter  part  of  summer  and  early  fall.  At  this  season  the  pastures  are 
often  short  or  dried  up,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  a common  mistake  of 
dairymen  to  let  their  cows  droji  off  in  flow  of  milk  through  lack  of 
feed.  Later  they  find  it  impossible  to  restore  the  milk  flow,  no  matter 
how  the  cows  are  fed.  Good  dairy  practice  demands  that  the  milk 
flow  be  maintained  at  a high  level  all  the  time  from  parturition  to 
drying  off.  It  becomes  necessary,  therefore,  to  supply  some  feed  to 
take  the  place  of  the  grass.  The  easiest  way  to  do  this  is  by  means  of 
silage.  Silage  is  cheaper  and  decidedly  more  convenient  to  use  than 
soiling  crops. 

The  amounts  to  feed  will  depend  upon  the  condition  of  the  pastures, 
valuing  all  the  way  from  10  pounds  to  a full  winter  feed  of  40  iiounds. 
It  shoidd  be  remembered  in  this  connection  that  silage  contains  a 
low  percentage  of  protein,  so  that  the  greater  the  amount  of  silage 
fed  the  greater  must  be  the  amount  of  protein  in  the  supplementary 
feeds  to  properly  balance  the  ration. 

SILAGE  FOR  HORSES. 

By  George  M.  Rommel,  Chief  of  the  Animal  Husbandry  Division. 

Silage  has  not  been  generally  fed  to  horses,  partly  on  account  of  a 
certain  amount  of  danger  which  attends  its  use  for  this  purpose,  but 
still  more,  perhaps,  on  account  of  prejudice.  In  many  cases  horses 


18 


FARMERS^  BULEETIN  578. 


have  been  killed  by  eating  moldy  silage,  and  the  careless  person  who 
fed  it  at  once  blamed  the  silage  itself,  rather  than  his  own  carelessness 
and  the  mold  which  really  was  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  Horses  are 
peculiarly  susceptible  to  the  effects  of  molds,  and  under  certain  con- 
ditions certain  molds  grow  on  silage  Avhich  are  deadly  poisons  to 
both  horses  and  mules.  Molds  must  have  air  to  grow  and  therefore 
silage  Avhicli  is  packed  air-tight  and  fed  out  rapidly  Avill  not  become 
moldy.  If  the  feeder  Avatches  the  silage  carefully  as  the  Aveather 
AA^arms  up  he  can  soon  detect  the  presence  of  mold.  When  mold  ap- 
pears, feeding  to  horses  or  mules  should  stojA  immediately. 

It  is  also  unsafe  to  feed  horses  frozen  silage  on  account  of  the 
danger  of  colic.  This  is  practically  impossible  to  avoid  in  very  cold 
Aveather,  especially  in  solid-Avall  silos.  By  taking  the  day's  feed 
from  the  unfrozen  center  of  the  silo  and  chopping  aAvay  the  frozen 
silage  from  the  edges  and  piling  the  frozen  pieces  in  the  center  the 
mass  Avill  usually  thaAV  out  in  time  for  the  next  feed. 

Corn  to  be  made  into  silage  for  horses  should  not  be  cut  too  green, 
as  sour  silage  Avill  result  and  may  cause  colic  Avhen  fed.  The  corn 
should  be  aa’cII  matured  and  cut  Avhen  the  grain  is  beginning  to  glaze. 
The  silo  should  be  tilled  rapidly  and  the  corn  should  be  vigorously 
tramped  and  packed  Avhile  filling.  At  least  three  men  should  be 
inside  the  silo,  moving  constantly,  tAVo  around  the  edges  and  the 
third  across  and  around  the  center.  This  is  by  far  the  most  important 
point  in  connection  Avith  feeding  silage  to  horses,  and  the  liA^es  of 
the  horses  fed  on  silage  may  depend  on  the  thoroughness  Avith  Avhich 
the  tramping  is  done.  If  properly  done  no  danger  is  likely  to  result ; 
if  not  properly  done  air  pockets  may  form  and  cause  the  accumula- 
tion of  a small  mass  of  mold  Avhich  the  feeder  may  oAerlook  but 
Avhich  might  be  sufficient  to  kill  one  or  more  horses. 

The  value  of  silage  for  horses  is  greatest  as  a means  to  carry  them 
through  the  winter  season  cheaply  or  to  supplement  pasture  during 
drought.  As  the  danger  of  mold  is  greater  in  summer  than  in  Avinter, 
silage  should  not  be  fed  to  horses  in  that  season  unless  a large  number 
of  animals  are  getting  it,  and  the  daily  consumption  is  so  large  as  to 
preclude  the  formation  of  mold  on  the  surface. 

To  cheapen  the  ration  of  brood  mares  in  Avinter  no  feed  has  more 
value  than  good  corn  silage.  If  the  grain  goes  into  the  silo  with  the 
stover  no  additional  grain  is  needed  for  brood  mares,  hay  being  the 
only  supplementary  feed  necessary.  If  there  is  little  grain  on  the 
corn  the  silage  should  be  supjAlemented  Avith  1 pound  of  old-process 
linseed-oil  meal  or  cottonseed  meal  daily  per  1,000  pounds  live 
Aveight,  sprinkled  over  the  silage. 

Horses  to  be  Avintered  on  a silage  and  hay  ration  should  be  started 
on  about  5 pounds  of  silage  daily  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  the 


THE  MAKING  AND  FEEDING  OF  SILAGE. 


19 


grain  and  hay  ration  being  gradually  decreased  as  the  silage  is 
increased  until  the  ration  is  20  jiounds  silage  and  10  pounds  of  hay  ' 
daily  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight.  It  will  require  about  a month 
to  reach  the  full  feed  of  silage,  but  the  period  may  be  decreased 
somewhat,  depending  on  the  judgment  and  skill  of  the  feeder. 

Mares  fed  in  this  manner  will  be  in  splendid  condition  for  foaling, 
and,  so  far  as  the  writer’s  ex})erience  goes,  the  foals  will  be  fully  as 
vigorous,  Avith  just  as  much  size  and  bone,  as  if  the  mares  were  fed 
the  coiiATiitional  grain  and  hay  ration. 

Work  horses'Avhen  idle  can  be  Avintered  satisfactorily  in  this  man- 
ner, but  much  silage  is  not  recommended  for  horses  at  heavy  Avork 
for  the  same  reason  that  a driving  horse  can  not  do  his  best  Avhile 
on  Avatery  grass  pasture. 

The  Avriter  knoAvs  of  cases  Avhere  stallions  receiA^e  a ration  of  silage, 
but  has  had  no  experience  in  feeding  them  in  this  manner.  There 
seems  no  reason  Avhy  silage  should  not  be  a valuable  feed  for  stallions 
during  the  idle  season. 

Silage  should  also  be  useful  for  young  horses,  especially  drafters, 
but  here  again  the  Avriter  can  not  quote  his  oavu  experience  and 
experimental  data  are  meager. 

To  summarize,  silage  is  safe  to  feed  to  horses  and  mules  only  Avhen 
it  is  made  from  fairh^  mature  corn,  properly  stored  in  the  silo.  When 
it  is  properly  stored  and  is  not  alloAved  to  mold,  no  feed  exceeds  it  as 
a cheap  Avinter  ration.  It  is  most  valuable  for  horses  and  mules 
Avhich  are  not  at  lieaAw  Avork,  such  as  brood  mares  and  Avork  horses 
during  the  slack  season.  With  plenty  of  grain  on  the  cornstalks, 
horses  Avill  keep  in  good  condition  on  a ration  of  20  pounds  of  silage 
and  10  ])oimds  of  hay  for  each  1,000  pounds  of  live  Aveight. 

SILAGE  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE. 

Ry  W.  JF.  Ward,  Animal  Hushandman  in  Beef  Cattle  Investigations. 

There  is  no  roughage  Avhich  is  of  more  importance  to  the  producer 
of  beef  cattle  than  silage.  The  A^alue  of  silage  to  the  beef  producer 
varies  considerably  and  is  dependent  upon  a large  number  of  other 
factors.  If  rough  fodders  are  scarce  or  are  high  priced,  if  the  grain 
is  high  priced,  or  if  the  grain  is  not  near  a good  market  that  much  of 
it  can  be  readily  sold,  silage  Avill  have  a greater  AGilue  than  if  the 
opposite  conditions  exist.  It  is  a great  saA^er  of  grain  regardless  of 
Avhether  it  is  to  be  fed  to  stock  cattle  or  fattening  cattle.  It  will 
lessen  the  grain  feeding  by  practically  the  same  amount  as  is  con- 
tained in  the  silage.  The  value  Avill  also  depend  someAvhat  upon  the 
kind  of  cattle  to  Avhich  it  is  to  be  fed.  If  there  is  an  abundance  of 
rough  fodders  Avhich  can  not  be  marketed,  silage  Avill  not  be  so  val- 


20 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  578. 


liable.  But  in  a case  of  this  kind  the  silage  would  prove  more 
» valuable  if  used  for  the  calves  and  pregnant  cows  and  the  coarse 
fodders  used  for  the  other  stock. 

SILAGE  FOR  THE  BREEDING  HERD. 

For  wintering  the  entire  breeding  herd  there  is  no  roughage  better 
than  silage.  All  of  the  animals  will  relish  a ration  containing  it  and 
it  will  create  a good  appetite  for  all  other  feeds.  Cows  that  are  fed 
all  of  the  silage  they  will  consume  along  with  clover  hay  will  go 
through  the  winter  in  fine  shape  and  make  small  gains.  If  the 
amount  of  silage  is  limited,  a more  economical  method  of  wintering 
them  will  be  to  reduce  the  silage  to  a half  ration,  letting  them  have 
the  run  of  a straw  stack  and  feeding  about  2 pounds  of  cottonseed 
meal  or  oil  meal  per  day.  Some  dry  coarse  fodder  or  straw  should 
always  be  kept  before  animals  getting  silage,  as  it  reduces  the  amount 
of  silage  consumed  and  prevents  the  bowels  from  becoming  too  loose. 
The  succulent  feed  will  cause  the.  breeding  cows  to  give  a good  flow 
of  milk  even  though  the  calf  be  born  in  midAvinter,  and  a thrifty  calf 
Avill  result.  If  the  silage  is  free  from  mold  or  rotten  spots  there  Avill 
be  no  danger  in  feeding  it  to  breeding  cows. 

Silage  is  especially  beneficinl  for  calves  Avhich  have  just  been 
weaned.  They  take  to  this  ration  quicker  than  to  dry  feed  and  there 
is  usually  little  loss  in  weight  from  the  Aveaning.  The  silage  should 
be  supplemented  Avith  some  good  leguminous  hay,  as  alfalfa,  coAvpea, 
or  cloA’-er,  and  the  calves  should  be  given  a small  amount  of  grain. 
A mixture  of  one-half  corn  chop  and  one-half  cottonseed  meal  is 
excellent. 

SILAGE  FOR  STOCKERS. 

Each  farmer  aa  ill  have  to  plan  the  rations  for  his  cattle  according 
to  the  amount  of  the  various  feeds  he  has  on  hand.  Stockers  can  be 
wintered  on  silage  and  some  good  hay,  fodder,  or  straAv,  but  this  may 
not  ahvays  be  the  most  profitable.  When  hay  is  high  priced  and 
grain  is  reasonably  cheap  or  plenty  of  silage  is  available,  it  may  be 
more  economical  to  omit  the  hay  altogether.  A ration  of  corn  silage 
alone  has  often  been  profitable  for  thin  cattle.  Stockers  Avhich  have 
been  fed  liberally  all  Avinter  and  made  to  put  on  good  gams  usually 
do  not  make  as  large  daily  gains  Avhen  put  on  grass  as  do  steers  Avhich 
have  not  been  quite  so  AA^ell  fed.  The  time  the  cattle  are  to  be  finished 
for  market  and  the  degree  of  fatness  to  be  attained  should  govern  to 
a large  extent  the  method  to  be  folloAved  during  the  Avinter.  When 
beeves  are  expected  to  sell  high  in  the  early  summer  and  the  steers 
are  to  be  finished  for  market  at  that  time,  a heavy  roughage  ration 
AA  ith  a small  amount  of  grain  should  be  fed  during  the  Avinter  months. 


THE  MAKING  AND  FEEDING  OF  RILACJE. 


21 


SILAGE  FOR  FATTENING  ANIMALS. 

Silage  stands  first  in  rank  of  all  the  ronghao’es  for  finishing  cattle. 
Formerly,  durin£>'  the  era  of  cheaj)  corn  and  other  concentrates  little 
attention  was  given  to  the  roughage^  as  it  was  usually  considered 
merely  a “filler”  and  of  A^ery  little  economic  value  in  feeding.  No 
especial  care  was  taken  in  selecting  any  particular  kind,  nor  Avas 
the  quality  of  it  seriously  considered.  As  the  prices  of  the  concen- 
trated feedstuffs  adAvanced,  the  feeder  looked  about  for  methods  of 
cheapening  the  cost  of  producing  beef,  and  soon  found  this  could  be 
accomplished  by  using  judgment  in  selecting  his  roughage  Avith 
respect  to  the  grain  fed.  This  has  continued  until  at  the  present 
time  the  roughage  receives  as  much  attention  as  the  concentrated 
feed,  and  has  been  made  to  take  the  place  of  a large  amount  of  the 
latter.  The  feeding  of  silage  came  into  general  use  Avith  the  advent 
of  expensiA^e  grain  and  is  becoming  more  poimlar  each  year.  With 
the  present  prices  of  feedstuffs  there  is  hardly  a ration  used  for 
feeding  cattle  Avhich  can  not  be  cheapened  by  the  use  of  this  suc- 
culent feed.  By  combining  it  Avith  other  feeds  the  efficiency  of  the 
ration  is  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  the  amount  of  the  daily 
gains  is  invariably  greater  and  the  cost  of  producing  a pound  of 
gain  is  lessened.  The  heaviest  daily  gains  are  usually  made  during 
the  first  stage  of  the  feeding  period,  and  silage  can  then  be  used  to 
advantage  in  large  quantities  Avith  a small  amount  of  grain,  but  as 
the  feeding  progresses  the  amount  of  silage  should  be  lessened  and 
the  grain  increased.  In  some  places  the  price  of  hay  and  stover  is  so 
high  that  the  greater  the  proportion  of  silage  used  in  the  ration  the 
more  profitable  is  the  feeding. 

Conditions  in  general  are  such  that  any  giA^en  ration  Avill  not  suit 
a large  number  of  farmers,  nor  Avill  it  be  so  profitable  for  some  as  it 
Avill  for  others,  so  each  farmer  must  determine  for  himself  just  Avhat 
combination  of  feeds  Avill  be  most  profitable  for  his  use.  IIoAvever, 
to  give  a general  idea  of  some  of  the  rations  adapted  to  different 
localities  and  Avhich  may  ])rove  satisfactory  for  a 1,000-pound  steer, 
some  examples  are  giA^n  beloAv : 

RATIONS. 

P'OR  THE  CORN  BELT. 


Ration  /. 


Corn  silage 

Corn  stover 

Cottonseed  meal  or  oil  meal 
Shelled  corn 


- Ration  2. 

Corn  silage 

CloA^er  hay 

Shelled  corn  


Pounds. 


6 


14 


25 


15 


22 


FARMERS^  BULI.ETIN  578, 


FOR  THE  EASTERN  STATES  WHERE  HAY  IS  VERY  HKHI  AND  CORN  IS 


Corn  silage .30 

Corn  stover 0 

Cottonseed  meal  or  oil  meal 4 

Shelled  corn lo 


FOR  THE  SOUTH  WHERE  COTTONSEED  ISIEAL  IS  OF  MODERATE  PRICE  AND 
COWPEA  HAY  IS  RAISED  ON  THE  FARM. 

R (it  ion  1. 

Pounds. 


Corn  silage R.l 

Cowpea  hay 8 

Cottonseed  meal  or  oil  meal 7 


Ration  2. 

Corn  silage 

Cottonseed  hulls 

Cottonseed  meal 

FOR  THE  WEST  WHERE  CORN  CAN  NOT  BE  RAISED. 


80 

12 


Ration  1. 


Pounds. 

Kafir-corn  silage 80 

Prairie  hay 8 

Cottonseed  meal 8 

Kafir-corn  meal ^ 10 


Ration  2. 

Kafir-corn  silage 25 

Alfalfa : 7 

Kafir  corn 15 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  above  rations  are  not  necessarily 
to  be  fed  in  the  exact  quantities  given  above,  but  should  be  modified 
to  suit  local  conditions  or  tile  actual  conditions  on  each  farm.  They 
are  given  to  show  approximately  the  average  amounts  and  character 
of  feed  that  would  be  consumed  daily  by  a 1,000-pound  steer  during 
the  feeding  period. 

It  is  Avell  to  feed  as  near  a balanced  ration  as  possible  without 
materially  increasing  its  cost.  Sometimes  the  prices  of  available 
feeds  are  such  that  a farmer  is  justified  in  deviating  from  the  stand- 
ard. Such  conditions  are  illustrated  by  the  use  of  some  of  the 
rations  iriven  above.  The  second  ration  shown  for  the  South  is  an 
example,  as  that  ration  is  very  narrow,  but  in  certain  localities  it  is 
more  profitable  than  one  which  is  balanced  by  the  use  of  high-priced 
carbohydrate  feeds. 

T\vo  rations  are  shown  for  tlie  West  where  kafir-corn  silage  is  used. 
With  some  farmers  it  would  undoubtedly  be  more  profitable  to  use 
alfalfa  hay  as  a substitute  for  cottonseed  meal,  while  Avith  others  the 
purchase  of  the  cottonseed  meal  would  be  more  economical. 


THE  MAKING  AND  FEEDING  OF  SILAGE. 


23 


MISCELLANEOUS  CONSIDERATIONS. 

Silage  is  a quick  finishing  roughage  in  that  it  produces  large  daily 
gains  and  produces  a glossy  coat  and  a soft,  pliable  skin.  Moreover, 
it  can  be  used  to  advantage  at  times  for  carrying  cattle  for  a longer 
time  so  as  to  pass  over  a period  of  depression  in  the  market,  or  to 
carry  the  cattle  along  in  thrifty  condition  so  they  can  be  finished  at 
a later  period. 

For  many  years  the  belief  was  general  that  cattle  which  received 
silage  as  a major  2:)ortion  of  the  roughage  would  have  to  be  kept  in 
Avarm  barns  and  not  exposed  to  the  cold.  While  they  do  need 
protection  from  the  cold  Avinds  and  rains  and  need  a dry  place  to  lie 
doAvn,  it  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  that  Avarm  barns  are  not  only 
unnecessary,  but  that  fattened  cattle  make  both  larger  and  cheaper 
gains  Avhen  fed  in  the  open  sheds  than  Avhen  confined  in  barns. 
Stocker  or  thin  cattle  receiving  silage  will,  of  course,  need  more  pro- 
tection than  animals  Avhich  are  being  fattened. 

Silage  can  be  profitably  used  to  supplement  the  pastures  for  steers 
during  a time  of  drought,  Avhen  they  are  being  finished  for  market, 
but  it  is  still  an  open  question  Avhether  it  can  ahvays  be  used  profit- 
ably for  feeding  to  breeding  cattle  during  such  times.* 

The  theory  that  silage-fed  cattle  shrink  A’ery  heaAuly  in  shipping  to 
market  is  erroneous.  MTiile  the  actual  shrinkage  during  transit  is 
sometimes  greater,  the  fill  taken  at  market  is  usually  good,  and  if 
good  judgment  is  used  in  preparing  them  f(h  shipping  the  net 
shrinkage  is  no  greater  than  for  cattle  Avhicli  have  been  fed  on  dry 
feeds.  For  3G  hours  preAuous  to  shipping  nice  bright  hay  and  stoA’er 
should  be  substituted  for  the  silage  in  the  ration. 

The  general  impression  that  choice  or  prime  carcasses  can  not  be 
made  by  the  use  of  succulent  feed  is  equally  untrue,  as  the  silage-fed 
cattle  usually  make  more  desirable  carcasses  than  cattle  fed  a similar 
ration,  except  that  silage  aa  as  replaced  by  one  of  the  coarse  fodders. 
There  is  no  appreciable  difference  in  the  percentage  of  marketable 
meat  that  steers  Avill  dress  out  Avhich  haA^e  been  finished  on  a silage 
ration  and  a dry  ration.  The  meat  seems  equally  bright  and  the 
fat  as  Avell  intermixed  aa  ith  the  lean. 

If  silage  makes  up  the  bulk  of  the  roughage  it  Avill  be  necessary  to 
haul  large  amounts  of  bedding  into  the  sheds  to  keep  the  animals 
dry,  as  there  is  no  Avaste  in  silage,  or  else  make  a cement  floor  and 
coA^er  Avith  bedding  to  absorb  the  urine  and  prevent  the  animals  from 
slipping  and  to  give  them  a Avarm  place  to  lie  doAvn.  When  the 
enormous  saving  in  the  quality  and  amount  of  the  feed  is  considered, 
this  disadA^antage  does  not  seem  so  hard  to  overcome  by  the  stockman 
Avho  has  the  capital  to  put  up  the  silo  and  pave  his  feed  sheds  or  feed 
Tots. 


24  farmers’  bulletin  578. 

SILAGE  FOR  SHEEP. 

By  E.  L.  Shaw,  Animal  Husbandman  in  ^lieep  and  Goat  1 nveslif/aiions. 

The  use  of  this  succulent  feed  for  sheep  has  attracted  the  attention 
of  most  farmers  only  during  the  past  feAv  years.  Although  a few 
sheepmen  fed  silage  many  years  ago  with  good  results,  most  dock- 
masters  have  been  slow  in  giving  it  a trial.  Owing  to  the  wonderfu’ 
increase  in  the  use  of  silos  on  farms,  and  owing  to  the  cheapness  oi 
silage  as  compared  with  other  succulent  feeds,  such  as  roots,  farmei’^ 
are  constantly  raising  the  question  regarding  the  feeding  of  silage  t 
sheep.  A great  deal  has  been  said  of  its  bad  effects  upon  sheep,  bi 
these  have  arisen  either  because  an  inferior  quality  of  silage  was  fe 
or  on  account  of  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  feeder  .n  not  feedin 
it  properly. 

A good  quality  of  silage  is  extremely  palatable  and  can  be  fed  t. 
all  classes  of  sheep  with  good  results.  It  must  be  borne  in  niiiK 
however,  that  silage  which  is  either  very  sour,  moldy,  or  froze 
should  not  be  fed. 

The  amount  of  silage  reported  in  feeding  trials  varies  from  1 to  ' 
pounds  per  head  per  day.  The  amount  to  feed  depends  upon  tin 
class  of  sheep  and  the  character  of  the  other  feeds  comprising  th< 
ration.  As  a general  rule  from  2 to  4 pounds  per  head  per  da}^  is 
considered  as  much  as  should  be  fed. 

Lamb  feeders  have  found  silage  a very  satisfactory  feed,  and  tin 
a^nount  fed  ranges  from  1 to  3 pounds  per  day.  AYhere  lambs  an 
on  full  feed  of  grain,  such  as  corn,  and  are  receiving  a fair  allowano 
of  hay,  they  Avill,  as  a rule,  only  consume  from  1 to  2 pounds  pe’ 
head  per  day. 

In  feeding  breeding  ewes  before  lambing  a daily  allowance  of  fron 
2 to  3 pounds  should  be  considered  a maximum  quantity.  Aftei 
lambing  the  amount  can  be  slightly  increased. 

In  feeding  silage  or  any  other  succulent  feeds  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  value  of  such  feeds  to  a large  extent  is  to  act  as  an 
appetizer  and  to  keep  the  digestive  system  in  good  condition.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  where  silage  is  fed  it  should  not  constitute  mor< 
than  one-half  of  the  entire  ration,  and  it  should  be  fed  with  other 
feeds  that  will  properly  balance  the  ration  for  the  purpose  intended. 

o 


WASHINdTOX  ; GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


US. DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Wm.  A.  Taylor,  Chief. 

April  17,  1914. 


CRIMSON  CLOVER:  UTILIZATION. 

By  J.  M.  Westgate, 

Agronomist  in  Charge  of  Clover  Investigations,  Office  of  Forage-Crop  Investigations. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Crimson  clover  may  be  utilized  in  a number  of  different  ways, 
'or  feeding  purposes  it  may  be  used  as  a soiling  crop,  hay,  ensilage, 
nd  pasture  for  all  classes  of  live  stock.  In  addition,  it  is  of  special 
alue  as  a green-manure  crop  to  increase  the  humus  and  nitrogen 
ontent  of  the  soils  upon  which  it  is  produced.  When  cut  for  hay  the 
tubble  and  roots  remain  in  the  soil,  and  when  pastured  the  uneaten 
)arts  of  the  plants,  as  well  as  the  manure  made  while  the  cattle  are 
)eing  pastured,  are  added  to  the  soil  for  the  benefit  of  the  succeeding 
rops.  Also  when  cut  for  seed  the  stubble  and  roots  remain,  and,  if 
lesired,  the  straw  can  be  scattered  back  on  the  land  to  further 
•ncrease  its  fertility.  Crimson  clover  is  also  of  some  value  as  a honey 
olant,  furnishing  an  abundant  supply  of  nectar  for  a short  period  in 
die  spring. 

One  disadvantage  of  crimson  clover  is  the  comparatively  short 
leriod  in  the  spring  during  which  it  may  be  utilized.  This  drawback 
:an  be  overcome  materially  by  the  seeding  of  both  late  and  early 
strains,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  variety.  In  this  way  the  season 
for  cutting  either  the  hay  or  green  feed  is  lengthened.  Plowing  under 
for  green  manure  is  a time-consuming  process,  and  the  use  of  varieties 
having  different  dates  of  maturity  would  enable  the  farmer  to  utilize 
a much  larger  acreage  for  this  purpose.  The  white-blooming,  white- 
seeded  strain  is  from  two  to  three  weeks  later  than  the  ordinary 
crimson  variety.^ 

1 A discussion  of  the  growing  of  crimson  clover,  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  soils  and  sections  adapted 
to  this  crop  .etc. , will  be  found  in  Farmers’  Bulletin  550  entitled  “Crimson  Clover:  Growing  the  Crop,” 
copies  of  which  may  be  procured  free  of  cost  by  addressing  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Note. — This  publication  gives  time  of  cutting,  methods  of  harvesting,  feeding  value,  and  use  as  a 
soiling  crop,  as  pasture , as  a soi  1 i mprover,  and  as  a cover  crop.  Adapted  to  the  Eastern  States. 

32784°— Bull.  579—14 1 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  579. 
CRIMSON-CLOVER  HAY. 


TIME  OF  CUTTING. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  best  hay,  crimson  clover  should  be  cut  when 
the  most  advanced  heads  are  beginning  to  show  faded  flowers  at 
their  base.  At  this  stage  the  plants  contain  the  maximum  amount 
of  protein  and  dry  matter,  while  the  leaves  are  still  present  and  the 
stems  are  comparatively  green.  The  chief  danger  of  later  cutting  is 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  short  hairs  on  the  stems  and  flower  heads 
soon  become  dry  and  stiff  and  in  this  state  are  more  likely  to  form 


Fig.  1.— Tedding  crimson-clover  hay  shortly  after  being  cut.  In  the  background  the  hay  is  being  brmched 

or  shocked  with  pitchforks. 


hard  hair  balls  in  the  intestinal  tracts  of  horses  to  which  the  hay 
may  be  fed.  If  cut  before  the  full-bloom  stage,  less  than  the  maxi- 
mum quantity  is  obtained  and  the  hay  is  somewhat  more  difficult  to 
cure. 

HARVESTING. 

Crimson  clover  for  hay  should  be  mown  after  the  dew  is  off  in  the 
morning  and  allowed  to  lie  in  the  swath  for  a few  hours.  It  should 
then  be  tedded  at  least  twice,  with  an  interval  of  about  six  hours  of 
sunshine  between  the  different  tedding  operations.  (See  fig.  1.)  The 
hay  will  then  be  in  a condition  to  rake  into  windrows.  (See  fig.  2.) 

After  lying  in  the  windrow  for  a day  of  good  drying  weather,  the 
hay  can  be  placed  in  small  shocks,  where  it  will  cure  nicely  in  three 
or  four  days  unless  rain  should  intervene.  It  ordinarily  requires 


CRIMSON  clover:  utilization. 


3 


about  a week  from  tlie  time  the  hay  is  cut  until  it  can  be  safely 
placed  in  the  barn.  For  the  best  results  in  curing,  both  the  ground 


Fig.  2. — Raking  crimson-clover  hay.  After  being  tedded  once  or  twice  the  hay  is  raked  into  windrows 
and  later  placed  in  large  bunches  or  shocks. 


and  the  air  should  be  warm  and  dry.  The  hay  should  not  be  hauled 
to  the  barn  until  it  is  dry  enough  to  rattle  when  handled  with  tlie 
fork.  (See  fig.  3.) 


Fig.  3.— Hauling  crimson-clover  hay  to  the  bam.  This  hay  had  been  cut  five  days  previously. 

It  is  important  in  curing  crimson-clover  hay  that  the  leaves  be 
not  allowed  to  become  so  dry  as  to  crumble  in  either  the  swath  or 


4 FARMERS^  BULLETIN  579. 

windrow.  Crumbling  leaves  result  in  a very  dusty  hay,  as  well  as  in 
much  loss. 

Rain  is  somewhat  less  harmful  to  crimson  clover  in  the  shock  than 
to  other  forms  of  clover  or  alfalfa,  but,  nevertheless,  it  is  subject  to 
a good  deal  of  leaching  if  exposed  to  the  rain.  This  leaching  action  of 
the  rain  dissolves  the  more  soluble  portions  of  the  hay,  such  as  some  of 
the  protein,  sugars,  etc.  Analyses  of  samples  of  crimson-clover  hay 
were  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  One  sample  was  subjected  to  water  from  a 
sprinkler,  to  imitate  three  successive  rains  of  one  hour  each  at  inter- 
vals of  three  days.  A duphcate  sample  gathered  at  th^  same  time 
and  under  the  same  conditions  was  not  subjected  to  water  falling 
upon  it  during  the  process  of  curing.  The  analyses  showed  that  the 
sample  which  had  been  subjected  to  the  artificial  rain  had  lost  about 
three-fourths  of  its  sugar,  one-ninth  of  its  protein,  and  three-fourths 
of  its  mineral  constituents.  The  percentage  of  protein  in  the 
unleached  sample  was  14.88,  as  compared  with  13.19  for  the  leached 
sample. 

If  untimely  rains  wet  into  the  shocks  for  a considerable  depth,  it 
is  the  practice  in  some  sections  to  remove  the  top  third  and  place  it 
to  one  side  instead  of  pulling  the  shock  to  pieces.  The  remaining 
part  of  the  shock  is  then  inverted  and  the  old  top  again  placed  in 
position  on  the  old  base  of  the  shock,  which  has  become  the  top. 
This  permits  a sufficiently  rapid  drying  out  of  the  shock  without 
shattering  the  leaves. 

SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION. 

Crimson  clover  cures  rather  readily,  and  as  a result  spontaneous 
combustion  of  the  hay  is  very  rare.  In  one  instance  a farmer  living 
near  Brighton,  Md.,  noticed  smoke  issuing  from  the  center  of  Ins 
crimson-clover  mow  six  months  after  the  clover  had  been  placed  in 
the  barn.  The  heating  originated  where  the  hayfork  had  dropped 
the  bunches  of  hay  and  thus  had  thoroughly  compacted  the  mass. 
The  hay  was  somewhat  damp  when  placed  in  the  barn  and  appar- 
ently the  combustion  did  not  take  place  until  most  of  the  moisture 
had  been  ehminated.  The  barn  and  most  of  the  hay  were  saved  by 
cutting  out,  with  a hay  knife,  the  area  surrounding  the  smoldering 
mass,  and  wetting  each  successive  layer  with  buckets  of  water  before 
it  was  removed  to  a near-by  field.  The  hay  was  entirely  black  and 
showed  numerous  sparks  here  and  there  before  being  wetted  down. 

It  is  important  that  the  hay  should  be  free  from  external  moisture, 
such  as  dew  or  rain,  when  placed  in  the  barn,  as  this  condition  often 
causes  it  to  develop  heat.  If  the  hay  is  not  perfectly  cured  when 
placed  in  the  barn,  material  changes  sometimes  take  place  without 
the  hay  mass  taking  fire.  One  instance  was  noted  near  Seaford. 


CRIMSON  CLOVER  : UTILIZATION. 


5 


Del.,  where  the  mowing  away  of  liay  wiiich  was  too  green  resulted  in 
the  production  of  the  so-called  “hrown  hay, which,  although  un- 
sightly in  appearance,  is  usually  greatly  relished  by  stock. 

FEEDING  VALUE. 

Crimson-clover  hay  is  considered  by  dairymen  to  he  fully  equal, 
if  not  superior,  to  red  or  alsike  clover  as  a roughage  feed  for  their 
cows.  The  New  Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  conducted 
a feeding  experiment  with  milch  cows  which  showed  that  crimson 
clover  was  worth  $16.55  per  ton  when  substituted  for  wheat  bran 
at  $26  per  ton,  for  dried  brewers’  grains  at  $20  per  ton,  or  for  mixed 
timothy  and  redtop  hay  at  $16  per  ton.  In  addition  to  its  value 
for  milch  cows,  it  is  also  an  important  constituent  of  the  roughage 
feed  of  sheep,  horses,  mules,  and  other  animals  in  the  sections  where 
it  is  grown.  When  grown  in  grain  mixtures  the  resulting  hay  can 
be  fed  to  advantage,  especially  to  horses. 

CRIMSON-CLOVER  HAIR  BALLS. 

It  is  very  important  in  cutting  hay  that  it  be  cut  before  it  has 
become  mature,  else  the  dry,  ripened  hairs  on  the  stems  and  heads 
are  hkely  to  cause  hair  balls  to  form  in  the  ahmentary  tracts  of  horses 
and  mules.  These  hair  balls  are  of  a solid,  compact,  feltlike  struc- 
ture and  nearly  always  cause  death.  The  experience  of  a veteri- 
narian of  Dover,  Del.,  has  been  that  only  one  case  out  of  about  a 
hundred  recovered.  It  is  stated  that  often  the  horses  affected  are 
those  belonging  to  newcomers  in  the  crimson-clover  district,  espe- 
cially those  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  feeding  of  crimson  clover 
or  advised  as  to  the  proper  stage  to  cut  it  for  hay.  Much  less  trouble 
is  experienced  by  those  who  are  accustomed  to  feeding  it,  since  they 
do  not  feed  it  in  large  quantities  but  in  mixture  with  other  hay  and 
are  careful  to  cut  it  before  it  has  passed  the  stage  of  full  bloom.  If 
the  hay  is  sprinkled  with  water  12  hours  before  feeding,  the  danger  of 
hair-ball  formation  is  said  to  be  considerably  reduced.  The  danger 
is  also  greatly  reduced  if  other  hay  or  roughage  be  fed  with  the  crimson 
clover.  Occasionally,  however,  horses  which  have  been  fed  judi- 
ciously as  long  as  10  or  12  years  have  become  stricken  with  this  com- 
plaint. Figure  4 shows  two  hair  balls  taken  from  different  horses. 
Ordinarily,  horses  and  mules  only  are  affected  with  these  hair  balls. 

CRIMSON  CLOVER  AS  A SOILING  CROP. 

The  ability  of  crimson  clover  to  make  its  growth  very  early  in  the 
spring  brings  it  to  the  stage  where  it  can  be  cut  and  fed  green  to 
cattle  at  a time  when  most  other  green  growth  is  just  starting. 

32784°— Bull.  579—14 2 


6 


FAKMEKS"  BULLETIN  579. 


Usually  crimson  clover  may  be  cut  and  fed  green  to  the  stock  for  a 
period  of  two  to  five  weeks,  especially  if  tlic  early  or  late  maturing 
varieties  be  utilized  in  connection  with  the  ordinary  variety.  The 
fact  that  all  roughage  is  likely  to  be  scarce  in  the  spring  makes  crimson 
clover,  in  the  sections  where  it  succeeds,  an  especially  valuable  addi- 
tion to  the  list  of  forage  crops  on  the  farm. 

CRIMSON  CLOVER  AS  PASTURE. 


Crimson  clover  furnishes  earlier  pasture  than  any  other  of  the 
clovers.  As  a pasture  crop  it  comes  on  after  rye  and  before  the  red- 
clover  pasture  is  available.  When  there  are  two  fields  on  the  farm 


Fig.  4.— Crimson-clover  hair  balls  taken  from  horses  which  had  died  from  the  presence  of  these  masses  in 
the  alimentary  tracts.  The  larger  one  is  the  largest  of  six  taken  from  a horse  which  had  been  fed  on 
crimson-clover  hay  for  12  years  before  his  death.  Horses  have  died  within  a few  months  after  com- 
mencing to  eat  crimson  clover.  The  smaller  hair  ball  is  as  large  as  a regulation  baseball. 

wliich  may  be  successfully  pastured  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  get 
as  much  as  eight  weeks  of  spring  pasturage  from  crimson  clover. 
(See  fig.  5.)  This  permits  the  ordinary  pastures  to  develop  a good 
growth  of  grass  before  it  is  necessary  to  turn  the  cattle  upon  them. 
The  remaining  portions  of  the  clover  plants,  as  well  as  the  droppings, 
are  usually  plowed  under  shortly  after  the  cattle  are  removed,  and 
this  makes  a very  good  preliminary  treatment  for  the  succeeding 
crop.  One  instance  was  noted  near  Salisbur}^,  Md.,  where  a dairy- 
man with  40  cows  pastured  them  for  three  weeks  on  3 acres  of  crim- 
son clover.  He  then  pastured  the  same  40  head  on  7 acres  for  six 
weeks,  feeding  in  addition  a daily  ration  of  4 quarts  of  bran. 


CRIMSON  clover:  utilization. 


7 


Crimson  clover  is  only  occasionally  pastured  in  the  fall.  A light 
pasturing  then  with  sheep  or  calves  induces  it  to  stool  out  better 
than  is  the  case  when  the  fall  growth  is  not  pastured.  From  Vir- 
ginia southward  the  open  winters  make  possible  considerable  winter 
pasturing  with  calves  and  hogs.  Heavy  stock  should  not  l)e  pas- 
tured on  fields  when  the  ground  is  soft  and  muddy. 

Milch  cows  have  been  observed  to  make  more  milk  when  pastured 
on  crimson  clover  than  when  pastured  on  red  clover  or  alsike  clover. 
Crimson  clover  may  also  be  pastured  with  horses  and  pigs.  The 
only  drawback  to  its  utilization  as  pasture  is  the  fact  that  its  season 
is  comparatively  short,  not  extending  beyond  two  months  in  the 
spring.  Pigs,  sheep,  calves,  and  chickens  may,  however,  obtain 
considerable  pasturage  during  the  fall  and  open  winter  months. 


Fig.  5.— Cows  pasturing  on  crimson  clover.  The  clover  in  the  immediate  foreground  has  been  cut  and 

fed  green  to  other  stock. 

Cattle  are  somewhat  subject  to  bloating  if  pastured  on  crimson 
clover  that  is  wet  with  rain  or  dew.  They  are  not,  however,  troubled 
to  the  extent  that  they  are  when  pastured  on  either  red  clover  or 
alfalfa. 

CRIMSON  CLOVER  AS  A SOIL  IMPROVER. 

When  a crop  of  crimson  clover  is  turned  under  a large  quantity  of 
humus  and  fertilizing  material  is  added  to  the  soil.  This  is  especially 
true  when  all  of  the  crop  is  plowed  under  as  green  manure.  Often, 
however,  the  field  is  left  standing  for  hay  or  seed,  thus  leaving  only 
the  stubble  and  roots  in  the  field.  (See  fig.  6.)  Tlie  stubble  and 
roots  appear  in  many  cases,  however,  to  be  almost  as  effective  in 
soil  improvement  as  is  the  plowing  under  of  the  entire  crop,  except 
where  the  soil  is  rather  low  in  humus.  MTien  the  crop  is  cut,  about 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  570. 


40  per  cent  as  much  nitrogen  is  returned  to  the  soil  as-  when  the 
entire  plant  is  plowed  under.  A full  crop  of  crimson  clover  with  a 
green  weight  of  roots  and  tops  of  about  10  tons  per  acre  is  ordinarily 
regarded  as  equivalent  in  its  effects  to  an  application  of  fresh  barn- 
yard manure  at  the  rate  of  about  8 tons  per  acre.  This  estimate 
seems  justified  by  the  relative  composition  of  the  clover  plants  and 
the  manure.  A ton  of  fresh  manure  ordinarily  contains  about  7.8 
pounds  of  nitrogen  and  500  pounds  of  dry  matter,  as  compared  with 
about  8.8  pounds  of  nitrogen  and  370  pounds  of  dry  matter  per  ton 
of  green  crimson  clover.  When  the  clover  is  plowed  under  the 
soil  has  really  gained  only  in  humus  and  in  the  nitrogen  abstracted 
from  the  air  by  the  nodule-forming  bacteria  on  the  roots  of  the  clover. 
The  soil  gains,  on  the  other  hand,  in  potash  and  phosphorus  as  well 


Fig.  C.— Plowing  under  crimson  clover  and  grain  stubble.  The  haystacks  are  to  be  seen  in  the  back- 
groimd.  The  dark  strip  in  the  center  was  occupied  the  previous  fall  by  corn  shocks. 


as  in  nitrogen  and  humus  when  the  manure  is  applied  and,  conse- 
quently, ton  for  ton  the  manure  would  appear  to  be  somewhat  more 
valuable  than  the  crimson  clover.  When  crimson  clover  is  seeded 
fairly  early  it  will  accumulate  nearly  half  of  its  final  quota  of  nitro- 
gen before  winter  and  after  most  other  crops  have  ceased  their 
growth.  It  also  resumes  its  growth  very  early  the  following  sprmg, 
so  that  it  is  out  of  the  way  in  time  for  the  regular  spring-seeded  crops. 
This  characteristic  makes  it  of  special  value  in  the  economic  mamte- 
nance  of  soil  fertility,  since  it  is  possible  to  grow  a money  crop,  such 
as  corn,  cotton,  or  tomatoes,  each  summer  and  at  the  same  time  turn 
under  each  year  either  the  stubble  or  the  entire  crop  of  crimson  clover. 
It  has  been  found  most  desirable  to  commence  plowmg  under  the 
crimson  clover  at  least  a week  or  10  days  before  it  commences  to 


CBIMSON  CLOVER  : UTILIZATION. 


9 


bloom.  This  gives  three  or  four  weeks  for  tliQ  plowing  under  of  the 
crop  and  for  the  preparation  of  the  ground  for  the  spring-seeded  crops. 
For  early-planted  truck  crops  it  is  often  desirable  to  turn  under  the 
crimson  clover  when  it  is  only  half  or  two-thirds  grown,  as  the  ground 
at  that  time  is  likely  to  be  much  less  cloddy  from  baking  than  if  the 
plants  are  left  until  they  are  nearly  or  quite  in  bloom. 

Not  only  is  nitrogen  in  a very  available  form  added  to  the  soil, 
but  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  already  in  the  soil  are 
caught  and  kept  from  leaching  during  the  winter.  The  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  are  thought  to  be  rendered  more  available  to  the 
subsequent  crops  by  this  process. 

The  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is  also  materially  benefited  by 
the  growth  of  crimson  clover.  The  sandy  soils  are  increased  in  humus, 
thus  being  made  more  retentive  of  moisture.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
stiff,  heavy  clay  soils  are  rendered  more  open  and  friable.  Even  if 
the  crimson  clover  be  winterkilled,  there  is  usually  enough  fall  growth 
available  as  a source  of  soil  fertility  the  following  spring  to  more  than 
pay  for  the  cost  of  establishing  the  stand. 

It  is  generally  considered  that  a bushel  of  crimson-clover  seed  sown 
on  4 acres  of  ground  will  increase  the  succeeding  yield  of  corn  about 
the  same  amount  as  would  a ton  of  complete  fertilizer  applied  at  the 
rate  of  500  pounds  per  acre  on  4 acres  of  similar  land.  The  relative 
increase  of  such  a crop  as  corn  is  greater  on  poor  land  than  on  fields 
already  capable  of  producing  good  crops.  If  the  land  in  question  is 
so  poor  as  to  bring  only  10  or  15  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  a good 
stand  of  crimson  clover  turned  under  will  ordinarily  double  the  yield. 
To  obtain  a satisfactory  stand  of  the  clover  on  such  poor  land,  how- 
ever, manure  or  commercial  fertilizers,  and  often  lime,  must  be  applied. 
A part  of  the  increased  yield  of  the  subsequent  corn  crop  must  be 
credited  to  the  residual  effect  of  the  fertdizer  used  in  connection  with 
the  crimson  clover.  On  land  that  will  make  30  bushels  of  corn  per 
acre  a yield  of  45  bushels  may  ordinarily  be  expected  following 
crimson  clover.  On  land  richer  than  this  an  increase  of  more  than 
10  bushels  per  acre  is  uncommon.  A specific  instance  may  be  men- 
tioned in  the  case  of  J.  B.  Watkins  & Bro.,  of  Midlothian,  Va.,  whose 
farm  is  a shallow  sandy  loam  with  a clay  subsoil.  This  soil  was 
badly  run  down  and  w^as  not  producing  more  than  12  to  15  bushels 
of  corn  per  acre.  About  300  pounds  of  bone  meal  were  broadcasted 
when  the  clover  was  first  seeded  on  fallow  land.  The  following 
spring  a part  was  cut  for  hay  and  the  rest  turned  under.  The  entire 
field  was  then  put  in  corn,  and  each  summer  for  nine  years  crimson 
clover  was  seeded  in  the  corn  at  the  last  working.  The  yield  from  a 
measured  acre  the  ninth  year  was  55  bushels.  The  portions  from 
which  a crop  of  hay  was  cut  annually  gave  yields  of  corn  essentially 
the  same  as  where  the  entire  crop  was  plowed  under. 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  579. 


CRIMSON  CLOVER  AS  A COVER  CROP. 


Crimson  clover  in  sections  where  it  succeeds  is  regarded  as  a most 
satisfactory  cover  crop  on  soils  which  would  otherwise  be  left  bare 

during  the  winter.  (See 
fig.  7.)  It  is  especially  valu- 
able in  orchards,  where  it 
is  generally  plowed  under 
as  a green-manure  crop. 
Its  rapid  growth  during  the 
autumn  reduces  the  mois- 
ture and,  to  some  extent, 
the  plant-food  content  of 
the  soil.  This  induces  the 
trees  to  stop  growing  earlier 
in  the  autumn  and  to  ripen 
their  wood  well  in  advance 
of  cold  weather,  thus  ren- 
dering them  less  suscepti- 
ble to  winter  injury.  The 
plants  retain  for  the  use  of 
the  trees  the  following  sea- 
son much  of  the  plant  food 
which  would  otherwise 
leach  out  of  the  ground 
during  the  winter  and  early 
spring.  A good  stand  of 
crimson  clover  not  only  re- 
duces erosion  and  the  gully- 
ing of  the  fields,  but  on 
sandy  fields  the  blowing  of 
the  soil  by  the  wind  is  greatly  lessened.  The  plants  also  serve  to 
hold  the  snow  to  a greater  extent  than  if  the  field  was  left  bare  dur- 
ing the  winter. 


Fig.  7. — Crimson  clover  as  a cover  and  green-manure  crop. 
The  clover  on  the  left  has  been  turned  under  to  act  as  green 
manure. 


ADDITIONAL  COPIES  of  this  publication 
may  be  procured  from  the  Superintend- 
ent OF  Documents,  Government  Printing 
Office,  Washington,  D.  C. , at  5 cents  per  copy 


WASHINGTON  : GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


IS. DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


BEEF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

W.  F.  Ward,  Senior  Animal  Husbandman  in  Beef  Cattle  Investigations, 
inimal  Husbandry  Division,  and  Dan  T.  Gray,  Chief  of  the  Animal  Industry 
^vision  of  the  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station. 

THE  SOUTH  AS  A FIELD  FOR  BEEF  PRODUCTION. 

There  is  no  section  of  the  country  which  can  produce  cattle  more 
japly  than  the  South,  for  the  lands  are  still  cheap,  the  grazing  is 
)d,  the  pasture  season  is  long,  feed  can  be  produced  at  a minimum 
r t,  and  inexpensive  shelter  only  is  required  for  the  animals  during 
winter  months.  The  native  cattle  throughout  this  section  are 
)r  in  quality  and  small  in  size,  but  they  are  also  cheap  in  price, 
ey  are  not  worthless,  however,  and  their  cheapness  is  their  redeem- 
( feature,  for  they  are  good  foundation  stock  from  which  may  be 
)duced  an  excellent  herd  of  beef  animals  by  judicious  selection  and 
the  continued  use  of  purebred  beef  bulls. 

'/heap  lands  combined  with  cheap  cows  for  foundation  stock  make 
)ossible  to  start  in  the  cattle  business  in  the  South  with  an  outlay 
far  less  capital  than  in  most  other  sections  of  the  country.  Then, 
expensive  barns  are  unnecessary  for  beef  cattle  in  the  South;  the 
iy  shelters  needed  are  open  sheds  facing  south,  under  which  young 
tie  may  take  shelter  from  cold  rain  or  wind.  Mature  beef  cattle 
aally  need  no  other  protection  than  that  afforded  by  trees,  hedges, 
iderbrush,  canebrakes,  and  other  natural  shelters. 

PASTURE  LANDS  AND  GRASSES. 

( )f  the  total  land  area  of  the  South,  73.1  per  cent  is  made  up  of 
razing  land,  woods,  or  waste  lands,  and  a very  large  portion  of 
If  latter  would  produce  excellent  pasture  for  cattle.  The  types  of 
'*  and  the  nature  of  the  land  vary  widely  in  each  State,  but  in  each 
are  found  soils  which  produce  abundant  grazing.  The  stiffer 
5 usually  produce  better  grazing  and  fatter  cattle  than  do  the 
jt  or  sandy  soils.  The  lime  lands,  black  prairie  lands,  and 
jivial  lands  furnish  the  best  pastures. 

TE. — Gives  instruction  in  handling  and  feeding  beef  cattle,  the  best  breeds  for  the 
, and  the  best  pasture  plants.  Adapted  to  the  Southern  States. 

32789°— Bull.  580—14 1 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  580. 


The  natural  grasses  of  the  coastal  region  of  the  South  are  Bermuda, 
carpet  grass,  and  lespedeza.^  Bur  clover  should  be  planted  on  the 
sod.  If  pasture  grasses  are  planted,  some  Italian  rye  grass  should 
be  planted  with  the  other  seed,  as  this  grass  will  grow  rapidlj^^^  and 
furnish  early  spring  grazing  before  the  other  grasses  get  started.  On 
the  sandy  coast  lands  it  furnishes  good  pasture  the  latter  part  of  the 
winter,  surpassing  rye  for  this  purpose.  A mixture  of  redtop  and 
alsike  clover  should  be  planted  on  the  wet  lands. 

That  portion  of  the  South  which  lies  between  the  coastal  region  and 
the  Piedmont  region  may  be  called  the  upland  section.  There  Ber- 
muda, lespedeza,  carpet  grass,  and  crab  grass  are  the  most  important 
natural  grazing  plants.  Pedtop,  orchard  grass,  paspalum,  alsike 
clover,  bur  clover,  white  clover,  and  tall  oat  grass  may  be  planted  for 
grazing  purposes.  If  the  soil  is  damp,  as  creek  bottom  land,  alsike, 
redtop,  and  paspalum  will  do  well.  The  sod  of  paspalum  should  be 
planted,  as  the  seed  are  scarce  and  but  a small  percentage  of  them 
germinate.  If  there  is  much  lime  in  the  soil  the  clovers  will  grow 
readily. 

In  the  Piedmont  region  the  principal  permanent  grasses  are  blue 
grass  and  white  clover.  On  the  uplands  of  this  section  a mixture  of 
orchard  grass,  tall  oat  grass,  and  alsike  clover  may  be  planted  for 
pasture  purposes  and  gives  very  satisfactory  grazing.  Sometimes 
red  clover  is  planted  with  other  grasses  where  the  land  is  to  be 
grazed  but  two  or  three  years  before  being  put  into  cultivation. 
Bed  clover  or  red  clover  and  timothy  are  sometimes  planted  for 
hay,  and  after  cutting  the  first  year  are  grazed  the  second  year,  after 
which  the  land  may  be  planted  to  other  crops.  Redtop  is  often 
sown  on  the  damp  lands  and,  combined  with  the  white  clover  which 
usually  grows  on  such  lands,  furnishes  good  grazing. 

Johnson  grass  is  usually  found  on  the  black  prairie  lands  and  the 
lime  lands  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  This  furnishes  good  grazing 
for  one  or  two  years,  after  which  it  is  necessary  to  plow  the  land  to 
get  it  well  started  again.  Melilotus,  or  “ sweet  clover,”  is  quite 
generally  sown  on  the  Johnson-grass  land  for  pasture  purposes  and 
gives  good  grazing  for  two  years.  A combination  of  melilotus,  bur 
clover,  white  clover,  Johnson  grass,  and  lespedeza  furnishes  excellent 
grazing  for  nine  months  of  the  year.  As  melilotus  will  grow  on 
poor  lime  soils  which  may  be  but  a few  inches  deep,  it  is  the  most 
valuable  plant  to  sow  for  pasture  on  such  soils.  On  damp  prairie 
soils  alsike  clover,  paspalum,  and  white  clover  grow  well. 

1 Full  information  concerning  the  pasture  grasses  and  forage  crops  of  the  cotton  region 
is  given  in  Farmers’  Bulletin  509,  whioh  may  be  secured  free  of  charge  upon  application 
to  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 


BEEF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


3 


FORAGE  CROPS  AND  FEEDS. 

A great  variety  of  leguminous  hays  and  other  forage  crops  can  be 
grown  in  the  South.  In  the  whole  of  the  cotton  region  corn,  sorghum, 
co^t^peas,  and  soy  beans  produce  good  crops  for  forage  purposes. 
Crimson  clover  and  vetches  grow  well  in  the  South  Atlantic  coastal 
region.  In  Florida  and  along  the  Gulf  coast  velvet  beans,  beggar 
weed,  teosinte,  and  Japanese  sugar  cane  are  the  principal  forage 
crops.  In  the  Piedmont  region  alsike  clover,  red  clover,  timothy, 
millet,  orchard  grass,  and  sometimes  alfalfa  are  grown  for  hay. 


Fig.  1. — The  shaded  area  represents  the  portion  of  the  United  States  to  which  the 
results  secured  in  the  Alabama  feeding  experiments  are  applicable.  The  dark  circle 
in  Alabama  shows  the  approximate  location  of  the  test  farm.  The  location  of  the 
various  cattle  markets  to  which  southern  cattle  are  shipped  are  shown. 

The  most  important  plants  grown  for  hay  and  forage  in  the  black 
prairie  section  and  on  the  alluvial  soils,  in  addition  to  corn  and 
sorghum,  are  alfalfa,  melilotus,  lespedeza,  Johnson  grass,  Ber- 
muda, hairy  vetch,  and  common  or  Oregon  vetch.  All  of  these 
plants  are  especially  adapted  to  the  prairie  or  alluvial  soils.  In 
the  semiarid  portions  of  the  Southwest  kafir,  milo  maize,  sweet 
sorghum,  and  feterita  are  the  principal  forage  plants.  Some  native 
grasses  are  cut  for  hay,  while  Rhodes  grass  is  being  grown  to  a 
certain  extent  for  this  purpose. 


4 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  580. 


Corn  grows  well  throughout  the  South  and  is  the  principal  crop 
grown  for  grain  for  feeding  purposes  and  is  more  generally  used  for 
silage  than  any  other  crop.  Because  of  its  adaptability  to  almost  all 
soils,  the  wdde  variation  of  time  during  which  it  may  be  planted,  and 
its  luxuriant  growth  in  southern  latitudes  it  is  considered  the  most  im- 
portant silage  crop.  On  rich  soils  a yield  of  10  tons  of  silage  per  acre 
is  not  uncommon.  The  sorghums  stand  near  the  head  of  the  list  as 
the  most  important  forage  crops,  because  of  the  wide  range  of  terri- 
tory in  which  they  may  be  grown  and  their  adaptability  to  widely 
different  climatic  conditions.  Sweet  sorghum  is  usually  grown 
where  the  rainfall  is  abundant,  while  the  nonsaccharin  or  grain 
sorghums  are  grown  where  the  rainfall  is  less  or  where  semiarid  con- 
ditions prevail,  as  in  portions  of  Texas  and  Oklahoma.  Milo  maize 
and  kafir  each  make  a good  quality  of  silage  and  will  produce  a good 
yield  of  forage  during  a season  which  is  so  dry  that  Indian  corn 
would  make  little  growth.  Sweet  sorghum  can  be  planted  later 
than  corn  and  often  makes  a heavier  yield.  The  cost  of  growing  sor- 
ghum and  corn  is  about  the  same.  A combination  of  corn  and  sor- 
ghum makes  a silage  which  is  greatly  relished  by  cattle.  The  corn 
may  be  permitted  to  mature  slightly  more  when  ensiled  with  sor- 
ghum than  when  put  up  alone. 

Velvet  beans  are  seldom  used  for  hay,  but  they  are  raised  exten- 
sively for  forage  purposes  near  the  Gulf  coast.  They  furnish  excel- 
lent grazing  during  the  winter  months.  Japanese  sugar  cane  is  also 
used  as  a roughage  for  cattle  in  the  extreme  South.  Soy  beans  are 
sometimes  combined  with  corn  for  producing  silage,  and  such  silage 
has  a higher  feeding  value  than  corn  silage. 

The  most  important  hay  crops  of  the  South  are  alfalfa,  Johnson 
grass,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  and  in  some  sections  lespedeza,  crab  grass, 
Bermuda,  red  clover,  melilotus,  crimson  clover,  and  prairie  grasses. 
Excellent  yields  of  cowpea  hay,  soy-bean  hay,  or  sorghum  can  be 
secured  after  one  of  the  small-grain  crops  or  crimson  clover  has  been 
taken  off  the  land.  Lespedeza  is  grown  quite  extensively  for  hay  on 
the  alluvial  lands  of  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  Arkansas.  It  yields 
from  2 to  4 tons  of  hay  per  acre,  which  is  equal  to  that  of  red  clover 
or  alfalfa  in  feeding  value.  The  stems  are  fine  and  the  hay  is  made 
up  largely  of  leaves.  Crimson  clover  has  been  successfully  grown  for 
hay  along  the  Atlantic  coast  and  with  varying  success  in  other  por- 
tions of  the  South.  As  it  matures  in  the  spring,  the  hay  is  rather 
hard  to  cure.  The  hay  is  of  fair  quality  only,  being  inferior  to  red 
clover.  Crimson  clover  has  been  more  successfully  grown  as  a graz- 
ing crop  than  as  a hay  crop. 

In  addition  to  the  farm-grown  feeds  already  enumerated,  the 
southern  cattleman- can  secure  cottonseed  meal,  which  has  proven  to 
be  more  valuable,  pound  for  pound,  than  any  other  feed. 


BEEF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


5 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  RAISING  CATTLE. 

A common  practice  in  raising  cattle  in  the  South  is  to  use  the 
native  or  scrub  cattle  for  breeding  purposes  and  to  let  them  run  on 
the  free  range  or  on  pastures  and  old  fields  the  year  through,  with 
little  care  or  attention.  This  is  a poor  practice  and  a wasteful 
method.  Good  calves  can  be  secured  by  breeding  these  native  cows 
to  purebred  bulls  of  the  beef  breeds,  selecting  the  best  of  the  female 
calves  for  breeders  and  mating  them  with  another  purebred  bull  of 
the  same  breed.  The  quality  and  size  of  the  cattle  can  be  very  rap- 
idly improved  by  this  method.  Few  farmers  should  try  to  raise 
purebred  cattle  as  a business,  as  it  requires  more  skill  to  make  the 
business  a success  than  the  average  farmer  can  give  to  it.  Any  good 
farmer,  however,  can  make  a success  of  grading  up  his  native  herd 
by  the  use  of  purebred  bulls. 


Fig.  2. — What  good  blood  will  do.  A native  Alabama  cow  and  her  calf  by  a purebred 

Hereford  bull. 


For  several  years  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and  the  Alabama 
Experiment  Station  have  been  conducting  experiments  to  determine 
the  cost  of  raising  beef  cattle  to  various  ages  under  farm  conditions. 
This  work  has  been  conducted  under  actual  field  and  feed-lot  con- 
ditions with  native  cattle.  In  every  case  a trained  man  supervised 
the  work  and  kept  the  records,  and  in  some  instances  this  man 
actually  fed  the  cattle.  The  experiments  have  been  repeated  and 
original  results  tested  by  the  duplications.  Very  little  effort  has 
been  made  by  the  department  to  give  publicity  to  this  work,  although 
the  data  have  been  published  by  both  the  station  and  the  department.^ 
Now  that  the  results  of  several  years’  feeding  are  available  and  the 
principles  of  beef  production,  in  the  extreme  South  at  least,  have 

1 See  B.  A.  I.  Bulletins  103,  131,  147,  and  159;  or  Alabama  Bulletins  150,  151,  158, 
and  163.  Other  publications  will  be  issued  at  an  early  date. 


6 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  580. 


been  fairly  well  worked  out,  it  is  believed  to  be  desirable  to  present 
these  results  in  popular  form.  An  added  reason  is  the  demand  from 
the  South  for  practical  advice  on  beef  production,  especially  in  those 
sections  which  have  been  released  from  quarantine  against  Texas 
fever. 

In  one  experiment^  conducted  in  northern  Alabama,  when  the 
calves  were  grazed  on  native  grasses  for  about  six  months  of  the 
year,  and  grazed  on  the  corn  and  cotton  stalk  fields  and  the  waste 
lands  and  fed  some  rough  feed  and  a little  cottonseed  the  rest  of 
the  year,  it  was  found  that  when  all  expenses  of  the  calves  and  their 
dams,  including  labor,  feed,  pasture,  6 per  cent  interest  on  the  capital 
invested,  depreciation  in  value,  insurance,  and  the  manure  credited  at 
$1.25  per  ton,  the  cost  per  hundred  pounds  of  raising  a calf  to  12 
months  of  age  was  $2.35 ; to  24  months  of  age,  $2.28 ; to  30  months 
of  age,  $2.39;  and  to  33  months,  $2.31.  When  all  of  the  above 
expenses  were  charged  against  the  calves  and  no  credit  was  made 
for  the  manure  produced,  the  cost  of  raising  the  calves  increased  to 
$4.96  to  $5.25  per  hundredweight. 

. A later  experiment^  was  carried  out  under  farm  conditions  such 
as  prevail  throughout  the  South  below  the'  thirty-fifth  parallel  of 
latitude  and  without  the  detrimental  influence  of  the  cattle  tick.  The 
calves  were  born  in  March  and  April  and  grazed  with  their  mothers 
until  frost.  They  were  then  taken  from  their  mothers  and  turned  into 
cornstalk  fields,  cotton  fields,  and  a peanut  field  which  was  to  be' pas- 
tured by  fattening  hogs,  and  given  about  1 pound  of  cottonseed  cake 
per  day.  The  calves  were  about  9J  months  old  when  the  fields  were 
exhausted.  The  average  weight  of  each  calf  at  this  time  was  460 
pounds.  The  cost  per  head  was  $14.36,  or  $3.12  per  hundredweight, 
when  the  feed  consumed  by  the  calves  and  their  dams  was  charged 
at  market  prices,  pasturage  was  charged  at  50  cents  per  head  per 
month,  6 per  cent  interest  was  charged  on  the  capital  invested,  10 
per  cent  depreciation  in  value  of  the  breeding  herd  was  taken  into 
consideration,  taxes  were  paid  on  the  cattle,  and  labor  had  been 
charged  at  the  prevailing  prices. 

The  calves  were  then  fed  for  three  months  on  corn  silage,  sedge- 
grass  hay,  and  cottonseed  meal.  At  the  end  of  this  time  they  weighed 
560  pounds  each  and  had  cost  $20.24  per  head,  or  $3.61  per  hundred- 
weight. When  sold  they  returned  a net  profit  of  $6.81  each  after  all 
of  the  above  expenses  had  been  paid. 

FINISHING  CATTLE  FOR  THE  MARKET. 

FATTENING  CALVES. 

At  least  three  points  may  be  urged  in  favor  of  fattening  beef  cattle 
as  calves:  First,  more  breeding  animals  can  be  kept  on  a farm  when 


^ See  B.  A.  I.  Bulletin  147,  or  Alabama  Bulletin  150. 
2 Results  to  be  published  at  an  early  date. 


BEEF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


1 


the  offspring  are  disposed  of  at  an  early  age  than  when  they  are  re- 
tained until  maturity;  second,  the  younger  the  animal  the  cheaper 
each  pound  of  beef  is  made ; third,  the  money  invested  is  turned  more 
rapidly  when  the  animals  are  sold  when  young. 

Calves  which  can  be  jirofitably  finished  for  the  market  must  be 
high  in  quality  and  well  bred,  otherwise  they  will  not  fatten  prop- 
erly. Then,  too,  more  care  and  skill  must  be  exercised  in  feeding  a 
jmung  animal  than  an  old  one ; young  calves  will  not  grow  and  fatten 
Avith  any  degree  of  satisfaction  under  a careless  system  of  feeding 
and  management.  The  younger  the  animal  the  greater  the  skill 


Fig.  3. — A champion  Shorthorn  cow  that  has  produced  many  prize  winners.  Such 
cows  give  a liberal  flow  of  milk  for  the  calves.  They  have  proven  especially  desir- 
able for  the  farmer  who  raises  small  numbers  of  cattle. 

required  to  care  for  and  feed  it;  one  case  of  overfeeding  will  often 
put  the  stomach  and  bowels  out  of  condition  for  weeks. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and  tlie  Alabama  Experiment 
Station  have  conducted  five  exj)eriments  in  fattening  calves.^  These 
tests  were  made  during  the  years  1909  to  1913,  inclusive.  The  calves 
used  were  grades  of  the  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  Aberdeen- Angus,  and 
Red  Polled  breeds.  They  were  about  8 months  old  AAdien  put  into 
the  feed  lots.  Each  lot  of  animals  was  composed  of  from  15  to  52 
head. 

1 See  B.  A.  I.  Bulletin  147,  or  Alabama  Bulletin  158.  Later  experiments  now  ready 
for  publication. 


s 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  580. 

All  calves  in  the  experiments  made  satisfactory  gains ; the  average 
for  all  lots  was  about  1.65  pounds  per  calf  per  day.  The  cost  of  the 
gains  ranged  from  $5.13  to  $6.97  per  hundred  pounds. 

The  fattening  of  calves  for  market  proved  profitable  in  every  test 
made. 

Cottonseed  meal,  cottonseed  hulls,  and  alfalfa  hay  proved  to  be  an 
excellent  ration  and  a profitable  one  for  fattening  calves.  Cotton- 
seed meal  and  cottonseed  hulls  proved  to  be  a good  fattening  ration 
for  calves  for  a short  feeding  period. 

When  fed  in  conjunction  with  cottonseed  meal,  corn  silage  of 
rather  poor  quality  produced  the  same  daily  gains  on  calves  as  did 
cottonseed  hulls  and  cheapened  the  cost  of  the  daily  gains. 

The  substitution  of  two-thirds  of  the  cottonseed  meal  in  a ration 
with  corn  did  not  prove  profitable  when  corn  cost  70  cents  a bushel 
and  cottonseed  meal  $26  a ton. 

In  one  test  it  was  profitable;  to  replace  one- third  of  the  cottonseed 
meal  with  corn-and-cob  meal,  but  in  a second' test  nothing  was  gained 
by  the  introduction  of  corn-and-cob  meal.  The  first  year  the  calves 
which  received  corn-and-cob  meal  made  slightly  larger  daily  gains,- 
and  sold  for  more  than  did  the  calves  which  received  cottonseed  meal 
as  the  sole  concentrate.  The  second  year  the  addition  of  corn  to  the 
ration  did  not  increase  the  size  of  the  daily  gains,  nor  did  the  calves 
which  received  corn  sell  for  any  more  per  pound  than  the  other 
calves.  , 

In  a third  test  52  high-grade  Aberdeen- Angus  calves  fed  on  a 
ration  of  about  3 pounds  of  cottonseed  meal,  2 pounds  of  cowpea 
hay,  and  as  much  cottonseed  hulls  as  they  would  eat  made  daily 
gains  at  a cost  of  $5.55  per  hundred  pounds  and  returned  a net 
profit  of  $3.50  each.  , • 

In  a fourth  experiment  31  calves  which  were  fed  for  112  days  in 
the  dry  lot  and  then  fed  89  days  on  pasture  made  good  daily  gains, 
but  the  profits  were  not  as  large  as  they  would  have  been  if  the 
calves  had  been  sold  at  the  end  of  the  winter.  The  gains  made 
during  the  summer  were  good  and  were  made  cheaply,  but  the  price 
of  calves  was  so  much  lower  in  the  summer  than  at  the  close  of 
winter  that  the  continued  feeding  into  the  summer  months  was 
not  profitable. 

FATTENING  MATURE  CATTLE. 

WINTER  FATTENING. 

To  realize  the  greatest  profit  on  cattle  it  is  necessary  to  finish  them 
on  the  farm  where  they  are  raised.-  This  is  not  always  possible, 
however,  for  in  certain  sections  of  the  country  grazing  conditions 


BEEF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


9 


are  not  good.  In  each  case  it  is  neceshary  to  buy  cattle  and  finish 
them  during  the  winter  and  spring  months  on  dry  feeds,  if  manure 
is  desired  for  the  crops.  As  ir.anure  is  almost  essential  to  the  pro- 
duction of  good  tobacco,  cotton,  and  other  farm  crops,  a farmer  is 
often  Avilling  to  feed  cattle  with  little  cash  profit  in  order  to  secure 
manure  for  his  crop.  This  is  often  cheaper  for  him  than  maintain- 
ing a herd  of  beef  cattle,  especially  if  the  farm  is  small  or  the 
pasture  land  limited.  Land  may  be  so  high  in  price  that  it  is  more 
profitable  to  buy  feeders  than  to  raise  cattle.  Sometimes  it  is  de- 
sired to  build  land  up  more  rapidly  than  can  be  done  by  keeping 


Fig.  4. — A champion  Hereford  bull  of  the  type  which  has  proven  so  desirable  in  beef 
sires.  Notice  the  wonderful  depth  of  chest  and  strong  constitution,  as  well  as  the 
thickness  of  loin  and  fullness  of  quarter. 


a few  cows  the  year  through,  so  cattle  are  bought  for  feeding  pur- 
poses and  fattened,  primarily  to  obtain  the  manure. 

Cottonseed  meal  is  the  principal  and  most  imimrtant  southern  con-> 
centrate.  In  fact,  southern  feeders  seldom  give  other  concentrated 
feeds  consideration.  More  attention,  however,  is  demanded  in  a 
selection  of  the  roughages,  as  there  are  a number  which  may  be  pro- 
duced cheaply  on  the  farm.  One  of  the  questions  most  frequently 
asked  is,  “ Can  I afford  to  buy  cottonseed  hulls  to  feed,  or  must  I de- 
pend entirely  upon  farm-grown  roughages  ? To  answer  this  ques- 
tion a discussion  of  some  of  the  experiments  made  at  several  south- 
ern experiment  stations  is  given,  showing  the  values  of  some  of  the 
principal  roughages  for  fattening  cattle. 

32789°— Bull.  ."iSO— 14 2 


10 


FAKMEKS^  BULLETIN  580. 


THE  VALUE  OF  COTTONSEED  HULLS  AND  MEAL  AS  A FATTENING 
RATION  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE. 

For  a number  of  years  cottonseed  hulls  and  cottonseed  meal  have 
been  considered  the  most  important  ration  for  fattening  cattle  in  the 
South.  This  ration  produces  rapid  gains  for  the  first  GO  days,  but 
after  the  third  inontli  the  gains  usually  decrease  very  fast.  Experi- 
ments carried  on  in  South  Carolina,^  Texas, ^ Alabama,®  North  Caro- 
lina,^ and  Mississippi ' show  that  for  feeding  periods  of  three  to  five 
months’  duration  the  steers  fed  on  cottonseed  hulls  and  meal  made 
daily  gains  of  1.43  pounds  to  2.06  pounds.  The  amount  of  cotton- 
seed meal  required  to  make  100  pounds  of  gain  varied  from  282  to  589 
pounds  and  the  amount  of  hulls  from  1,120  to  2,030  pounds.  The  cost 
of  100  pounds  of  gain  varied  from  $7.66  to  $14.76,  and  the  profits 
varied  from  a loss  of  $5.15  per  head  to  a profit  of  $6.88  each  when 
cottonseed  meal  cost  $26  per  ton  and  cottonseed  hulls  $7  per  ton. 

Cottonseed  hulls  is  a good  roughage  for  cattle  which  are  to  be  fed 
but  a short  time,  and  for  such  periods  are  more  valuable  than  would 
seem  from  the  chemical  analysis. 

CORN  SILAGE  AS  A SUBSTITUTE  FOR  COTTONSEED  HULLS. 

Silage  is  very  popular  as  a roughage  for  several  reasons:  Large 
yields  can  be  ])i*oduced  per  acre:  it  can  be  stored  in  a comparatively 
small  space;  the  trouble  of  curing  hays  and  fodders  for  feeding  is 
reduced;  the  feeding  period  can  be  very  materially  lengthened;  and 
it  has  proven  more  profitable  for  finishing  beef  cattle  for  the  market 
than  any  other  i-oughage. 

Silage  is  a quick  finishing  roughage,  as  it  produces  large  daily  gains, 
gives  mellowness  to  the  animals,  and  gloss  or  ‘‘bloom”  to  the  coat. 
No  trouble  is  ever  experienced  in  getting  animals  to  eat  it.  The 
decrease  in  tlie  amount  of  gain  as  the  feeding  period  lengthens 
beyond  tlie  third  month  is  not  abrupt  as  with  hulls  and  meal. 

Feeding  tests  made  in  Alabama,®  South  Carolina,^  North  Carolina,^ 
and  Texas'^  show  that  the  daily  gains  made  by  steers  fed  on  silage 
were  usually  greater  than  when  hulls  were  used  and  the  amount  of 
grain  required  to  make  100  pounds  of  gain  was  smaller  in  every  test* 
with  the  silage-fed  steers.  The  use  of  silage  reduced  the  cost  of  the 
daily  gains.  The  longer  the  feeding  period  the  greater  was  the 
difference  in  favoi-  of  silage. 

1 South  Carolina  Bulletin  169. 

2 U’exaa  Bnllotin  153. 

SR.  A.  T.  Bullelin  159,  or  Alabama  Bulletin  163;  B.  A.  I.  Bulletin  103. 

^ North  C:aro!ina  Bulletins  218  .and  222. 

^ irississijjpi  Ihilletins  121  and  92. 

®Alal)ama  Bullelin  163,  or  B.  A.  I.  Bulletin  159. 

Texas  BuUeliii  97. 


BEEF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


11 


The  silage-fed  steers  finished  better  than  the  ones  fed  on  hulls, 
sold  for  higher  prices  per  pound,  killed  a larger  percentage  of 
marketable  meat,  and  made  greater  profits. 

When  cottonseed  meal  costs  $20  per  ton,  silage  when  used  for 
fattening  steers  is  usually  more  profitable  at  $3  per  ton  than  cotton- 
seed hulls  at  $7  per  ton. 

CORN  STOVER,  SORGHUM,  AND  JOHNSON  GRASS  HAY,  versus  HULLS 

FOR  STEERS. 

Corn  stover  when  used  as  the  sole  roughage  for  fattening  steers 
is  not  entirely  satisfactory.  It  is  not  very  palatable,  and  steers 


Pig.  5. — An  Abordeen-Augus  bull  showing  quality,  compactness,  and  smoothness.  Such 
bulls  got  calves  which  grow  rapidly,  mature  early,  and  finish  out  well  in  the  feed  lot. 


Avill  not  consume  as  much  of  it  as  they  should.  When,  however, 
it  is  fed  in  reasonable  amounts  along  with  clover,  alfalfa  hay,  or 
corn  silage,  it  is  a profitable  and  satisfactory  roughage  as  a feed 
for  finishing  steers.  In  tests  where  stover  was  the  sole  roughage 
smaller  daily  gains,  a larger  amount  of  grain  to  make  100  pounds 
of  gain,  and  more  expensive  gains  were  made  than  when  cottonseed 
hulls  were  fed.  Unless  stover  can  be  secured  cheaper  than  hulls 
it  will  be  more  profitable  to  use  the  latter  in  rations  for  fattening 
animals.  Steers  which  receive  stover  as  the  sole  roughage  do  not 
finish  well  and  do  not  sell  as  well  as  steers  which  have  been  fed  on 


12 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  580. 


cottonseed  hulls  or  corn  silage.  Stover  is  a farm-made  roughage 
which  can  be  used  to  best  advantage  by  the  breeding  herd  or  the 
stock  cattle. 

In  extensive  tests  in  Alabama  it  was  learned  that  sorghum  fodder 
could  not  be  substituted  profitably  for  cottonseed  hulls.  The  steers 
fed  on  sorghum  hay  made  smaller  and  more  expensive  gains  than 
those  fed  on  hulls.  Sorghum  was  not  equal,  pound  for  pound,  to 
cottonseed  hulls  for  finishing  cattle. 

When  Johnson  grass  hay  was  worth  $10  and  hulls  worth  $7  per 
ton  it  was  found  to  be  more  profitable  to  feed  hulls  as  a sole  roughage 
than  to  feed  a combination  of  Johnson  grass  hay  and  hulls. 

WINTERING  STEERS  PREPARATORY  TO  SUMMER  FATTENING  ON 

PASTURE. 

The  tests  ^ conducted  to  determine  the  most  profitable  way  of 
wintering  steers  which  were  to  be  fattened  on  pasture  the  follow- 
ing summer  lasted  three  years.  Each  year  a carload  of  steers  was 
run  on  range,  which  consisted  of  cotton  and  cornstalk  fields  and  some 
native  grasses  growing  on  the  waste  land,  without  any  feed,  while  the 
other  lots  of  steers  were  run  on  range  and  given,  in  addition,  a half 
ration  of  cottonseed  meal  and  hulls,  or  cotton  seed,  cowpea  hay,  or 
cheap  waste  hay.  The  records  were  kept  during  the  winter  and  also 
during  the  subsequent  summer,  when  they  were  being  fattened  for 
market. 

The  following  conclusions  were  drawn  from  these  tests : 

Steers  which  had  to  secure  maintenance  from  range  alone  during 
the  winter  lost  considerably  in  weight — over  100  pounds  per  head. 

Steers  which  received  a half  ration  of  hulls  and  meal  in  addition 
to  the  range  were  as  heavy  in  the  spring  as  they  were  in  The  fall, 
when  the  test  began.  The  average  cost  of  wintering  a steer  in  this 
manner  was  $5.21. 

Cattle  which  received  cowpea  hay  lost  but  9 pounds  each  during 
the  winter,  while  those  wintered  on  coarse  waste  hay  lost  a little 
weight  but  were  wintered  at  a cost  of  but  $2.06  per  head. 

The  steers  which  began  the  grazing  season  the  following  summer 
in  the  thinnest  condition  made  the  greatest  gains  in  weight,  and  those 
which  had  been  fed  during  the  winter  made  the  smallest  gains  during* 
the  summer.  This  was  true  to  such  an  extent  that  at  the  end  of  the 
summer  the  steers  which  had  been  fed  during  the  winter  could  hardly 
be  detected  from  the  ones  which  became  so  thin  on  range  alone. 

The  winter  feeding  of  steers  was  profitable  when  the  steers  were 
to  be  finished  for  market  early  in  the  summer,  but  was  not  profitable 
when  steers  were  grazed  the  whole  of  the  following  summer. 

1 See  B.  A.  I.  Bulletin  131,  and  Alabama  Bulletin  151.  Other  results  to  be  published 
at  an  early  date. 


BEEF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


13 


The  use  of  the  old  corn  and  cotton  stalk  fields,  cheap  or  damaged 
hays,  and  old  straw  stacks  proved  to  be  the  most  economical  method 
of  wintering  steers  which  were  to  be  grazed  all  summer. 

Cattle  which  are  being  wintered  on  range  alone  should  not  be 
permitted  to  get  so  poor  that  they  become  weak.  If  an  animal  gets 
very  poor,  it  should  be  fed  some  in  order  to  avoid  loss. 

FATTENING  STEERS  ON  SOUTHERN  PASTURES. 

The  use  of  certain  supplementary  feeds  in  addition  to  the  grass 
has  been  found  to  be  more  profitable  than  grazing  cattle  without 
feedd 


Fig.  6. — A champion  Galloway  bull.  This  breed  has  a rugged  constitution  and  is 
especially  adapted  to  withstand  rigorous  winters  and  graze  upon  scanty  pastures. 
Few  are  found  in  the  South. 


Cottonseed  cake  is  an  excellent  supplementary  feed  for  cattle  on 
pasture.  Larger  daily  gains,  but  more  expensive  gains,  were  secured 
when  cake  was  fed,  but  the  cake-fed  steers  sold  for  enough  more  at 
the  end  of  the  season  to  make  the  feeding  of  cake  extremely  profitable. 

Cold-pressed  cake  did  not  give  as  satisfactory  results  as  the  com- 
mon cottonseed  cake,  when  cold-pressed  cake  cost  $23  and  cottonseed 
cake  $26  per  ton. 

Cotton  seed  at  $14  a ton  proved  somewhat  more  valuable  than 
cottonseed  cake  at  $26  a ton  for  feeding  to  steers  on  pasture. 

1 See  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Bulletins  1.31  and  1.59  or  Alabama  Bulletins  151 
and  163. 


14 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  580. 


The  use  of  alfalfa  hay  in  addition  to  cottonseed  cake  for  steers 
on  pasture  did  not  prove  profitable  or  satisfactory. 

Steers  which  were  fed  a heavy  ration  of  cottonseed  cakQ  on  pasture 
and  finished  early  in  July  proved  far  more  profitable  than  steers 
which  did  not  receive  as  much  cake  daily,  but  were  fed  for  a longer 
time  and  sold  late  in  the  summer. 

The  feeding  of  cattle  on  pasture  increased  the  size  of  the  gains, 
caused  the  animals  to  fatten  much  faster  and  smoother,  increased 
their  value  per  hundredweight,  and  produced  better  carcasses  and  a 
higher  percentage  of  marketable  meat  than  the  grazing  of  steers 
on  pasture  alone. 

THE  VALUE  OF  SHELTER  FOR  FATTENING  BEEF  CATTLE. 

Cattle  make  better  gains  when  fed  under  open  sheds  facing  the 
south  than  when  confined  in  closed  barns.  The  use  of  sheds  saves  a 
small  amount  of  feed  which  would  be  ruined  by  rain  falling  upon 
it,  and  they  also  protect  from  the  weather  all  manure  which  is 
dropped  under  them.  Sheds  are  essential  for  feeding  cattle  on  heavy 
clay  or  prairie  soils,  in  order  that  the  steers  may  have  a dry  place  to 
lie  down  and  to  prevent  injury  to  the  land  by  trampling  in  w^et 
w^eather.  On  sandy  loam  lands  steers  which  w^ere  fed  under  shelter 
did  not  sell  for  enough  more  to  pay  for  the  upkeep  of  the  sheds  dur- 
ing each  of  three  years. 

On  sandy  or  sandy  loam  lands  the  cattle  may  be  profitably  fed  on 
the  cultivated  fields,  thereby  dropping  the  manure  directly  upon  the 
land.  The  troughs  should  be  moved  occasionally,  so  that  the  manure 
may  be  scattered  more  uniformly  on  the  land.  If  large  numbers  of 
cattle  are  fed,  they  should  be  moved  to  different  fields  during  the 
feeding  period  and  the  manure  plowed  under. 

In  three  experiments  in  Alabama^  shelter  other  than  that  fur- 
nished by  trees,  undergrowth,  etc.,  proved  unnecessary  for  mature 
animals. 

Sheds  are  absolutely  essential  in  feeding  calves  for  the  market. 

TICK  ERADICATION. 

The  Federal  Government  realized  the  importance  of  the  South  as 
a field  for  producing  beef  cattle  and  began  investigations  in  breed- 
ing and  feeding  cattle  in  the  South  in  1904,  and  in  1906  began  a sys- 
tematic fight  on  the  cattle  tick.  From  that  time  until  February  16, 
1914,  there  have  been  215,908  square  miles  of  land  actually  freed  of 
the  tick,  and  at  the  present  time  the  work  is  being  carried  on  in  every 
Southern  State.  In  some  States,  as  in  Mississippi,  the  work  is  pro- 
gressing very  fast,  and  it  is  simply  a question  of  time  when  the  whole 
South  will  be  free  of  the  Texas  fever  tick. 


1 See  Animal  Industry  Bulletins  103  and  159  and  Alabama  Bulletin  163. 


BEEF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


15 


BREEDS  OF  CATTLE  ADAPTED  TO  THE  SOUTH. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  type  of  the  aniiiial  is  of  very 
much  more  importance  than  the  breed,  there  are  some  breeds  of 
beef  cattle  which  are  better  suited  than  others  to  the  South.  The 
different  breeds  are  not  so  entirely  similar  as  to  prohibit  the  possi- 
bility of  making  a mistake  in  the  selection  of  one  to  suit  a particular 
farm  or  community.  The  question  is  often  asked,  “What  is  the 
best  breed  of  beef  cattle  for  the  South?”  The  answer  to  this 
general  question  can  not  be  given  by  naming  any  one  particular 
breed.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a “ best  ” breed  of  beef  cattle. 
One  breed  may  be  specially  adapted  for  a certain  purpose,  or  a 


Pig.  7. — A champion  Red  Polled  bull  of  the  type  which  represents  the  dual-purpose 

animals. 

certain  farm,  or  a certain  section  of  the  country,  while  another 
may  be  better  suited  for  a different  purpose,  a different  farm,  or 
a different  section  of  the  country.  It  is,  however,  very  often  pos- 
sible to  answer  the  question,  “What  is  the  best  breed  of  beef  cattle 
for  my  farm?  ” when  the  adviser  is  perfectly  familiar  with  the  char- 
acteristics of  both  the  breeds  of  beef  cattle  and  the  farm. 

The  breeds  of  cattle  with  which  this  bulletin  deals  are  divided 
into  two  general  classes,  the  beef  type  and  the  dual-purpose  type. 
The  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  Aberdeen- Angus,  and  Galloway  are  the 
prominent  breeds  belonging  to  the  beef  type,  while  the  Devon  and 
the  Red  Polled  are,  at  least  for  the  South,  the  most  important 
breeds  belonging  to  the  dual-purpose  type. 


16 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  580. 


THE  SHORTHORN. 

The  Shorthorn  is  popular  everywhere  in  the  world  where  beef 
animals  are  grown.  In  conformation  they  adhere  closely  to  the 
beef  type,  though  certain  families,  as  the  Bates,  have  exceedingly 
strong  milking  tendencies.  They  are  the  largest  of  our  beef  animals, 
the  cows  usually  attaining  weights  from  1,300  to  1,400  pounds 
and  the  bulls  from  1,800  to  2,100  pounds  or  more,  where  conditions 
are  favorable  and  the  cattle  tick  has  been  eradicated.  When  com- 
pared with  other  beef  breeds  of  cattle  the  Shorthorn  is  a heavy 
milker;  no  beef  breed  is  better  able  to  nourish  the  calf.  For  this 
reason  the  American  farmer  has  always  regarded  the  Shorthorn  as 
better  suited  to  general  farm  purposes  than  any  other  breed.  A 
few  Shorthorn  cows  have,  in  fact,  made  exceedingly  high  milking 
records.  In  color  the  Shorthorn  may  be  pure  red,  red  and  white, 
pure  white,  or  roan.  This  breed  produces  high-class  beef,  but, 
compared  with  the  Aberdeen- Angus,  the  Shorthorn  will  not  dress 
as  high  a percentage  of  high-class  meat.  For  this  reason  the  Short- 
horn steer  has  not  in  recent  years  maintained  his  reputation  at  the 
fat-stock  shows,  the  purebred  and  grade  Aberdeen-x\ngus  or  Here- 
ford having  surpassed  him  repeatedly.  Shorthorn  bulls,  however, 
mated  with  grade  cows  have  revolutionized  the  character  of  the 
meat  cattle  of  the  world. 

The  Shorthorn  is  well  adapted  to  the  South,  but  they  are  not  as 
early  maturing  and  do  not  graze  as  well  as  do  the  Herefords.  On  a 
farm,  however,  where  the  pasture  grasses  are  well  developed  and 
too  much  effort  is  not  required  to  get  a sufficient  amount  to  eat,  it 
would  be  difficult  to  find  a breed  of  beef  animals  which  would  surpass 
the  Shorthorn. 

Polled  Durham  cattle  are  really  Shorthorns,  except  that  they  are 
hornless.  The  “ single  standard  ” Polled  Durham  was  the  first  type 
of  hornless  Shorthorn  to  attract  attention.  The  originators  of  this 
type  used  pure  Shorthorn  bulls  on  “ muley  ” cows  of  the  Shorthorn 
type,  and  finally  developed  what  they  called  the  Polled  Durham 
breed.  These  cattle  were  very  much  like  the  average  Shorthorn, 
except  that  they  tended  toward  the  dual-purpose  type.  The  “ double 
standard  ” Polled  Durham  rel)resents  the  demand  of  Shorthorn 
breeders  for  a hornless  breed  of  Shorthorn  cattle;  these  cattle  are 
eligible  to  registration  in  the  American  Shorthorn  Herdbook,  as  well 
as  in  the  Polled  Durham  Herdbook. 

THE  HEREFORD. 

This  breed  of  cattle  has  been  materially  improved  within  the  last 
25  years  and  now  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  prominent  breeds  of  beef 
cattle.  In  fact,  this  breed  is  now  probably  the  most  popular  in  the 
South.  In  size  this  is  one  of  the  largest  breeds,  ranking  next  to  the 


BEEF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


17 


Shorthorn.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  average  farmer,  the  weakest 
point  ps  their  inability  to  give  a large  quantity  of  milk;  in  fact,  the 
cows  average  low  in  the  amount  of  milk  produced  and  are  open  to 
criticism  in  this  respect.  The  color  is  characteristic,  the  body  being 
red  and  the  head  and  face  white. 

The  breed  is  especially  Avell  adapted  to  southern  conditions.  For 
many  years  to  come  the  South  must  necessarily  be  mainly  a grazing 
district.  On  account  of  exceptional  vigor,  rustling  ability,  a thick 
coat  of  hair,  and  temperament,  the  Hereford  has  taken  first  place  as 
a grazing  animal.  The  Hereford  is  more  vigorous  than  the  Short- 
horn, and  on  this  account  is  often  capable  of  securing  a good  living 


Fig,  8. — A champion  Polled  Durham  bull.  A type  that  is  popular  among  the  breeders 

of  these  cattle. 


from  pastures  Avhich  afford  a too  limited  amount  of  grass  for  Short- 
horn cattle.  No  breed  of  beef  cattle  equals  the  Hereford  for  withstand- 
ing the  unfavorable  conditions  which  alwa3^s  accompany  the  range 
system  of  farming.  Hereford  bulls  have  accomplished  remarkably 
fine  results  when  crossed  with  the  native  cows  of  the  ranges  of  Texas 
and  the  Western  States. 


THE  ABERDEEN-ANGUS. 

In  general  conformation  this  breed  differs  somewhat  from  that  of 
the  Shorthorn  and  Hereford,  the  body  being,  as  a rule,  lower  to  the 
ground  and  more  cylindrical.  This  breed,  however,  is  not  as  large  as 
the  Hereford  or  Shorthorn,  but  does  not  fall  far  short  of  the  weights 


18 


farmers'  bulletin  580. 


reached  by  the  two  larger  breeds.  The  almost  universal  color  is 
black,  although  red  occurs  at  rare  intervals.  A small  amount  of 
white  on  the  underlines  is  not  objectionable.  As  milkers  the  Aber- 
deen-Angus  cows  rank  only  fair.  They  do,  however,  afford  more 
milk  than  the  Hereford,  but  the  breed  is  not  the  equal  of  the  Short- 
horn in  this  respect.  This  breed  produces  remarkable  beef  animals. 
The  Aberdeen- Angus  steer  in  the  fat-stock  shows  has  made  a wonder- 
ful record,  surpassing  all  other  breeds  repeatedly  in  this  respect. 

Although  the  Aberdeen- Angus  is  hardly  the  equal  of  the  Here- 
ford on  the  range,  nevertheless,  on  account  of  his  vigor  and  rustling 
habits,  he  is  well  suited  to  range  conditions,  and  is  therefore  well 
adapted  to  the  South.  The  Aberdeen- Angus  is  much  better  suited 
than  the  Shorthorn  to  southern  grazing  conditions. 

THE  GALLOWAY. 

This  breed  of  beef  animals  has  never  been  extensively  introduced 
into  the  South;  a few  herds,  however,  are  found  in  Texas.  They 
originated  and  were  developed  in  a very  cold  and  damp  country — 
southwestern  Scotland — so  have  never  been  thought  of  as  being 
suited  to  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States,  where  the  summers 
are  long  and  hot.  The  individuals  of  this  breed  are  short  of  leg, 
close  to  the  ground,  polled,  black  in  color,  have  long  hair,  and  are 
slow  to  mature  when  compared  Tvith  the  Shorthorns,  Herefords,  and 
Aberdeen- Angus.  The  Galloway  is  an  extremely  hardy  animal  and 
is  well  suited  to  the  ranges  of  the  Northwest,  where  food  may  be 
scarce,  and  where  the  winters  are  severe. 

THE  RED  POLLED. 

The  native  home  of  the  Red  Polled  cattle  is  in  England.  This 
breed  represents  the  dual-purpose  type  in  its  true  form,  as  the 
typical  cows  yield  milk  liberally  and  fatten  quickly  and  sat- 
isfactorily when  dry.  The  udder  is  often  deficient  in  the  fore  part 
and  the  teats  are  usually  large.  The  color  varies  from  light  to  dark 
red,  but  a little  white  on  the  belly  and  udder  is  not  particularly 
objectionable,  although  the  solid  color  is  preferred.  The  Red 
Polled  cattle  are  not  as  heavy  as  the  beef  breeds,  the  cows  under 
favorable  conditions  averaging  perhaps  1,200  pounds.  As  beef 
producers  these  cattle  hold  very  good  rank,  but  of  course  they  do 
not  win  the  highest  honors  when  shown  in  competition  with  the  beef 
breeds.  As  milk  producers  they  have  long  held  high  rank.  At  the 
Pan-American  dairy  test  in  1901  five  Red  Polled  cows  took  fifth 
rank  among  10  breeds. 

This  breed  of  cattle  is  well  suited  to  the  South,  and  the  southern 
farmer  who  wants  a cow  that  will  yield  a good  flow  of  milk  and  at 
the  same  time  raise  a calf  which  is  acceptable  from  the  beef 


BEEF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


19 


standpoint  will  not  make  a mistake  in  selecting  the  lied  Polled  cattle. 
They  are  hardy,  gentle,  and  reasonably  good  grazing  animals. 

THE  DEVON. 

The  Devon  in  conformation  closely  resembles  the  beef  breeds, 
though  it  is  smaller  in  size,  mature  bulls  seldom  weighing  2,000 
pounds  and  usually  from  1,400  to  1,800,  while  the  cows  weigh  about 
1,000  pounds  when  raised  under  good  conditions.  In  color  they  vary 
from  light  to  deep  red,  although  the  rich  deep  color  is  more  popular. 
They  have  a white  switch  and  may  have  some  white  on  the  under- 
paid of  the  body,  although  white  on  other  portions  of  the  body  is 
not  permissible. 


P^iG.  9. — What  good  feeding  will  do  when  combined  with  good  blood.  International 
grand  champion  steer,  1912. 


The  Devon  is  a wonderful  rustler,  and  will  keep  in  good  condition 
on  pastures  in  which  some  cattle  of  the  beef  breeds  could  hardly 
subsist.  They  are  slower  of  growth  than  the  beef  breeds,  but  do  well 
in  the  feed  lot,  comparing  very  favorably  with  the  Herefords  or 
Shorthorns.  The  cows  are  usually  good  milkers,  many  of  them 
giving  more  milk  than  the  calf  will  take  at  first.  The  result  of  this 
abundant  milk  flow  is  usually  a good  calf. 

In  some  sections  of  the  South  the  Devons  have  become  popular 
because  of  their  capacity  for  grazing  during  the  summer  months 
and  making  use  of  the  rough  feeds  and  native  grasses  during  the 
winter,  There  is  no  breed  of  cattle  in  this  country  which  make  work 


20 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  580. 


oxen  superior  to  the  Devon.  They  are  quick,  intelligent,  attain  good 
size,  and  stand  the  heat  well.  For  these  reasons  they  are  exceedingly 
popular  in  the  timber  sections  and  the  lumber  camps  of  the  South. 

SUMMARY. 

Good  pastures  are  essential  for  profitable  beef  production.  Plant 
pasture  grasses  over  the  waste  lands. 

Use  purebred  beef  bulls  for  grading  up  the  native  stock. 

Always  select  the  best  heifers  for  breeding  purposes. 

Eradicate  the  ticks  on  the  farm. 

Use  the  coarse  fodders,  straws,  and  the  stalk  fields  for  wintering 
the  breeding  herd. 

Wean  the  calves  when  the  pastures  get  short.  Put  them  in  the 
cornfields  and  pea  fields  while  weaning  and  teach  them  to  eat  cotton- 
seed cake  or  cottonseed  meal. 

Eaise  and  finish  beef  cattle  on  the  same  farm  when  possible. 

A mixture  of  cottonseed  meal,  cottonseed  hulls,  and  alfalfa  hay 
is  a good  ration  for  fattening  calves. 

Silage  is  the  best  roughage  for  fattening  any  class  of  cattle. 

More  care  is  necessary  in  feeding  calves  than  in  feeding  grown 
cattle. 

At  the  present  prices  corn  silage  is  a cheaper  and  better  feed  for 
fattening  beef  cattle  than  cottonseed  hulls. 

Hulls  and  cottonseed  meal  make  an  excellent  feed  for  a short  feed- 
ing period,  but  do  not  produce  good  gains  on  cattle  after  the  third 
month. 

It  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  to  use  corn  stover  as  the  sole  roughag( . 

When  Johnson-grass  hay  costs  $10  and  hulls  $7  per  ton  it  is  mor*" 
profitable  to  feed  the  hulls  alone. 

Summer  feeding  on  pasture  is  usually  more  profitable  than  wintei' 
feeding. 

Finishing  cattle  early  in  the  summer  is  usually  more  profitabh 
than  finishing  them  later  in  the  season. 

Fattening  steers  on  grass  and  cottonseed  cake  is  nearly  alwaY‘ 
more  profitable  than  grazing  them  without  feed. 

Thin  steers  when  put  on  pasture  make  larger  and  cheaper  daih 
gains  than  fleshy  ones. 

Pound  for  pound  cold-pressed  cottonseed  cake  is  not  equal  to  the 
common  cottonseed  cake. 

The  use  of  a small  amount  of  corn  in  addition  to  cottonseed  cake 
has  proven  profitable  for  feeding  steers  on  grass. 

o 


WASHINGTON  : GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


an 


U.S.DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

EWRS:  BUIXETI 


581 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  (Agricultural  Forecasts)  and  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry,  March  18,  1914. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


CORN. — World  acreage  and  production.  Imports  from  Argentina. 

OATS. — World  acreage  and  production.  Imports  from  Canada. 

BARLEY,  RYE,  POTATOES,  AND  FLAX.— World  acreage  and  production. 
BEEF. — Imports  from  Argentina. 

COTTON. — Recent  developments  in  colonial  production. 

Crop  Reporting  Systems  and  Sources  of  Crop  Information  in  Foreign  Countries. 


THE  WORLD  CORN  CROP. 

By  Charles  M.  Daugherty. 

Indian  corn,  or  maize,  although  the  last  of  the  great  cereals  to  be 
discovered,  is  now  grown  over  a broader  extent  of  the  earth’s  surface 
than  any  other  grain,  excepting  wheat.  Originally  merely  the 
primitive  food  grain  of  the  aborigines  of  tropical  and  semitropic al 
regions  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  its  cultivation  has  within  a 
few  centuries  extended  to  aU  Continents;  the  exceptional  produc- 
tivity of  the  plant,  in  both  corn  and  fodder,  and  the  manifold  uses 
made  of  grain,  stalk,  pith,  leaves,  and  cob  have  won  for  it  the  fame 
of  being  America’s  most  valuable  contribution  to  agriculture. 

In  so  far  as  can  be  determined  from  existing  statistics,  the  world’s 
recorded  corn  acreage  amounts  at  present  to  approximately  170 
million  acres.  As,  however,  no  figures  are  extant  respecting  the 
area  planted  in  many  of  the  smaller  producing  States  of  Central  and 
South  America,  ilsia,  Africa,  and  numerous  islands,  the  recorded 
acreage  doubtless  falls  short  of  the  actual  by  several  million  acres. 

The  bulk  of  the  world’s  crop,  as  is  well  known,  is  grown  in  America, 
where  the  plant  is  believed  to  have  originated.  Roundly  130  million 
acres  are  planted  annually  in  the  principal  producing  countries  of 
America;  of  this  upward  of  105  million  are  in  the  United  States, 
over  13  million  in  Mexico,  10  million  in  Arg;entina,  and  almost  a 
million  acres  in  Uruguay,  Canada,  and  Chile  combined.  In  the 
United  States  corn,  measured  by  the  surface  devoted  to  its  culture, 
is  far  and  away  the  leading  crop;  the  annual  acreage  is  more  exten- 
sive than  the  total  surface  under  all  other  cereals.  The  annual  yield 
32786°— Bull.  581—14- 1 


2 


FAEMEKS^  BULLETIN  581. 


ill  good  years  surpasses  iii  magnitude  the  combined  wheat  and  barley 
crops  of  the  whole  of  Europe.  Doubtless  the  most  striking  feature 
of  the  crop,  however,  is  that  the  enormous  production  is  absorbed 
almost  in  entirety  by  the  home  demand.  In  spite  of  an  increase 
since  1897  of  25  million  acres  in  the  area  planted,  exports,  which 
in  that  year  attained  the  maximum  of  189  million  bushels,  have 
since  almost  steadily  declined,  and  in  1913  amounted  to  only  45 
million  bushels.  The  tremendous  increase  in  domestic  consumption 
suggested  by  these  facts  is  further  emphasized  by  the  incident  tnat 
during  1913  over  5 million  bushels  were  added  to  the  home  supply 
by  imports  from  Argentina- — a movement  probably  due  in  part  to 
the  coincidence  of  a change  in  fiscal  regulations  governing  importa- 
tion of  corn  into  the  United  States  with  a heavy  shortage  in  the 
domestic  crop,  the  1913  yield  being  only  2,445,000,000  bushels,  com- 
pared with  3,125,000,000  bushels  in  the  preceding  year. 

T:  compare  the  vast  extent  of  land  under  corn  in  the  United  States 
with  that  in  other  countries  serves  little  purpose  other  than  to  illustrate 
the  heavy  monopoly  of  this  industry  by  the  United  States.  Mexico  is 
second  among  all  corn-growing  countries  in  point  of  acreage.  The 
production  (although  the  tortiUa,  a food  made  from  parched  corn, 
constitutes  the  chief  subsistence  of  the  masses)  is  insufficient  for, 
domestic  needs,  and  several  midion  bushels  annually  are  imported 
from  the  United  States.  In  Argentina  corn  culture  has  in  recent 
years  made  great  strides.  From  3 million  acres  in  1900,  plantings 
have  been  rapidly  extended,  and  a recent  estimate  of  the  Argentine 
Department  of  Agriculture  puts  the  land  seeded  for  the  crop  maturing 
in  the  spring  of  1914  at  10,250,000  acres.  A distinctive  feature  of  com 
growing  in  Argentina  is  that  the  bulk  of  the  crop  is  raised  for  export. 
Preeminently  a pastoral  country,  the  vast  fields  of  alfalfa,  and  a mild 
climate  that  permits  grazing  in  a great  part  of  the  pastoral  zone 
practically  the  year  round,  minimize  the  demand  for  corn  as  an  ani- 
mal food;  considerably  less  than  100  million  bushels  meets  annual 
domestic  requirements  for  all  purposes.  As  during  the  past  two 
years  the  production  has  amounted^  respectively,  to  296  milhon  and 
197  million  bushels,  Argentina  has  figured  as  the  most  important 
single  source  of  supply  for  the  great  importing  nations  of  Europe. 
Exports  to  all  countries  out  of  the  banner  crop  of  1912  amounted  to 
190  million  bushels.  If  the  present  rate  of  increase  in  culture  be 
maintained,  the  Pepublic  would  doubtless  be  in  a situation  eventually 
to  supply  single  handed  the  entire  import  demand  of  all  European 
States.  Much  of  the  Argentine  corn  is  of  the  flint  variety. 

In  the  Eastern  hemisphere  the  principal  maize-growing  regions  are 
southern  Europe,  Asia,  the  Mediterranean  countries  of  Africa,  and 
the  Union  of  South  Africa.  In  southern  Europe  the  crop  is  grown 
for  the  grain  on  an  expanse  of  territory  extending  from  west  to  east 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


3 


across  the  entire  continent  and  reaching  northward  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Black  Seas  to  latitudes  including  Switzerland  and  a small 
part  of  southern  Germany.  The  value  of  the  luxuriant  semitropical 
foliage  of  the  plant  has,  moreover,  extended  its  cultivation  for  fodder 
into  countries  v/here  the  seasons  of  warm  sunshine  are  too  short  for 
the  grain  to  matm-e,  and  hence  maize  is  grown  for  forage  to  a greater 
or  less  extent  in  many  countries  of  northern  Europe,  even  as  far  north 
as  Scotland.  In  southern  Europe  the  crop  is  cultivated  for  grain 
on  an  aggregate  of  about  30  million  acres,  the  total  annual  produc- 
tion usually  ranging  between  600  million  and  700  million  bushels. 
The  variety  raised  is  for  the  most  part  the  small-grained  yellow  flint, 
designated  by  English-speaking  people  as  round  maize’’  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  “flat”  or  large-grained  dent  variety,  consisting  of  wd:iite 
and  yellow  mixed,  wliich  reaches  European  markets  from  the  United 
States.  In  Portugal,  corn,  known  in  the  vernacular  as  milho,  is  cul- 
tivated on  a much  larger  scale  than  any  other  cereal  and  constitutes, 
among  other  uses,  the  chief  food  of  the  peasant  class.  ^ Spain  and 
France  have  each  over  a million  acres  under  maize.  Concentrated  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  former  country  and  southern  part  of  the  latter 
there  are  extensive  districts  where  it  is  the  chief  grain  cultivated  and 
the  principal  reliance  of  the  peasants  for  human  food.  Granoturco, 
the  Italian  name  for  corn,  is  grown  annually  in  Italy  on  an  extent 
of  about  4 million  acres,  and  in  two  provinces,  Lombardy  and  Venetia, 
on  a somewhat  jnore  extensive  scale  than  is  wheat;  polenta,  a dish 
prepared  from  corn,  is  in  parts  of  the  Kingdom  the  staff  of  life  of  the 
masses.  Upward  of  a million  bushels  are  raised  annually  in  Greece, 
and  in  1910  the  annual  output  of  European  Turkey  was  officially 
returned  at  22  million  bushels.  Corn  culture  in  Europe,  however, 
is  largely  centralized  in  a group  of  countries  comprising  Austria- 
Hungary,  Roiimania,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and  in  the  southern  govern- 
ments of  Russia.  In  this  territorj^  upward  of  20  million  acres  are 
planted  annually  and  the  normal  yield  is  approximately  500  million 
bushels.  The  important  position  the  crop  occupies  in  the  agriculture 
of  these  countries  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  in  Hungary  proper, 
the  principal  corn-growing  country  of  Europe,  and  in  Bulgaria  the 
acreage  is  second  only  to  that  of  wheat,  while  in  Roumania,  where 
the  grain  is  known  as  ^^porumb,  ” and  in  Servia,  where  it  is  called 
‘‘cucurza,  ” it  is  more  extensive  than  that  of  any  other  cereal. 
Excepting  Austria-Hungary,  whose  annual  production  is  a few 
million  bushels  short  of  domestic  requirements,  corn  is  grown  in 
the  rest  of  this  territory  in  surplus  quantities.  Aggregate  exports 
usually  ranging  between  50  million  and  80  million  bushels  a year, 
are  made  from  Roumania,  Bulgaria,  Servia,  and  Russia  to  Austria- 
Hungary,  Italy,  Spain,  and,  chiefly,  to  the  noiiproducing  States  of 
north  Europe. 


4 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


Outside  of  America  and  Europe  the  most  extensive  corn-growing 
area  in  the  world  is  m Asia,  notably  in  Turkey,  southern  Asiatic 
Russia,  British  India,  French  Indo-China,  the  Philippines,  China, 
and  Japan.  Although  the  crop  in  none  of  these  countries  attains 
the  proportions  of  a principal  one,  there  are  localities  in  most  of  them 
where  its  culture  is  of  great  local  importance.  In  Asiatic  Turkey  an 
official  report  indicated  over  900,000  acres  under  cultivation  in  1910, 
and  in  1911  a small  area  of  150,000  acres  was  returned  m Asiatic 
Russia — in  Ferghana,  Samarkand,  and  Syr-Daria.  In  British  India, 
where  in  some  districts  food  made  from  corn  is  the  chief  article  of 
native  diet,  over  6 million  acres  are  planted  yearly.  An  annual  area 
of  over  one  million  acres  is  grown  in  the  Philippines  and  upward  of 
130,000  acres  m Japan.  Statistical  record  of  the  area  and  yield  in 
Chma  and  Indo-China  is  nonexistent.  It  is  known,  however,  that 
the  gram  is  grown  to  a considerable  extent  m parts  of  Chma,  and  in  the 
northern  part  its  value  as  a human  and  anunal  food  is  supplemented 
by  the  general  use  of  the  stalks  as  fuel.  In  the  French  colony,  Indo- 
Chma,  the  growing  popularity  of  the  culture  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  the  annual  imports  into  the  mother  country  from  this  possession 
increased  from  571,000  to  3,710,000  bushels  during  the  period  1906 
to  1911. 

Corn  is  grown  quite  generally  on  the  Continent  of  Africa,  but, 
excepting  that  it  is  an  important  article  of  food  among  the  native 
tribes  of  the  central  colonies,  definite  information  respecting  the 
extent  of  its  culture  is  limited  to  the  countries  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  to  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  In  Egypt,  the  principal 
produemg  country,  the  area  (about  1,900,000  acres)  is  more  extensive 
than  that  of  cotton;  the  grain  constitutes  the  chief  food  of  the  Eg}q> 
tian  fellah  and  enters  almost  wholly  into  domestic  consumption. 
Small  areas  are  also  cultivated  in  Tunis,  Algeria,  Tripoli,  and  Morocco. 
In  the  Union  of  South  Africa  the  raismg  of  ‘Anealies,’’  the  local  name 
for  corn,  has  in  late  years  been  attracting  much  attention ; the  acreage, 
notably  in  Natal,  has  been  much  extended  and,  at  the  takmg  of  the 
census  of  1911,  the  total  South  African  production  was  found  to  have 
increased  to  over  30  million  bushels.  In  normal  years  a few  million 
bushels  are  now  available  for  export.  Corn,  it  may  be  added,  is 
grown  on  a small  scale  in  the  northern  latitudes  of  Australia  and  New 
Zealand,  and  in  many  islands  throughout  the  world  for  which  few 
statistics  are  extant. 

The  world’s  corn  production,  in  so  far  as  accurate  estimates  are 
obtamable,  is  in  magnitude  practically  equal  to,  and  in  one  year  at  least 
has  exceeded,  that  of  wheat.  The  importance  of  the  part  taken  by  the 
United  States  in  the  industry  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  in  1911 
the  crop  produced  was  upward  of  72  and  in  1912  over  71  per  cent  of 
the  world’s  recorded  production;  in  1913,  with  a shortage  of  almost  678 
million  bushels  in  the  domestic  outturn,  as  compared  with  the  previous 


THE  AGEICULTUEAL  OUTLOOK 


5 


year,  the  domestic  crop  represents  68  per  cent  of  the  recorded  crop  of 
the  world.  Details,  by  countries,  of  the  area  and  production  of 
specified  countries  in  1913  and  preceding  3^ears  are  given  hi  Table  1: 


Table  1. — Coni  crop  of  countries  named,  1911-1913. 


. 

Country. 

.'Vrea. 

Production. 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1911  1912  1913 

! i 

KORTII  AMERICA. 

United  States 

Canada: 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Other 

Total  Canada 

Me.vico 

Total 

Acres. 

105, 825,000 

Acres. 

107,083,000 

Acres. 

105,820,000 

Bushels. 

2, 531,488,000 

Bushels. 

3,  124,  746, 000 

Bushels. 

2,446,998,000 

298,000 
23, 000 
(') 

279,000 

19,000 

(') 

260,000 

18,000- 

(') 

18,467,000 

712,000 

6,000 

16,466,000 

476,000 

8,000 

16,182,000 
586, 000 
.5,000 

321,000 

298, 000 

278, 000 

19, 185,000 

16,9.50,000  1 16,773,000 

2 13,375,000 

U) 

(*) 

190,000,000 

190, 000, 000 

190,000,000 

2, 740,673,000 

3,331,696,000 

2,6.53,771,000 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Argentina 

Chile 

Uruguay 

7,945,000 
46,000 
498, 000 

8, 4.56, 000 
56,000 
(^) 

9, 464, 000 
(=*) 

{^) 

27,675,000 

1,221,000 

3,643,000 

295, 849, 000 
1,  .527, 000 
8,000,000 

196, 642, 000 
1,200,000 
4, 000, 000 

32,  .539, 000 

305,376,000 

201,842,000 

EUROPE. 

Austria-IIungary : 

Austria 

Hungary  proper 

Croatia-Slavonia 

Bosnia-Herzegovina 

Total  A ustria-H  un- 

gary 

Bulgaria 

France 

Italy 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia: 

Russia  proper 

748. 000 

6. 090.000 

1.024. 000 

51 0. 000 

752. 000 
6, 022, 000 
1,065,000 

549. 000 

705,000 

6,422,000 

G) 

(^) 

11.856.000 
137,423,000 

24. 006. 000 
8, 416, 000 

15. 053. 000 
176,694,000 

24.166.000 
8, 555, 000 

13,280,000 
194,299, 000 
24, 000, 000 
7, 480, 000 

8,372,000 

8,  .388, 000 

. . 

181,701,000 

224, 468, 000 

239, 059, 000 

1 . 562. 000 

1.049. 000 

4. 066. 000 

G) 

3.153.000 

(•') 

1.177.000 

3.938.000 

G) 

5. 138. 000 

G) 

G) 

3.888.000 

G) 

5.305.000 

30,589,  000 
16, 860, 000 
93, 680, 000 
15, 000, 000 
110, 712,000 

30. 000.  000 

23.733.000 

98. 668. 000 

15.000.  000 
103,921,000 

30.000. 000 

22. 000.  000 

108.388. 000 
15,000,000 

118.104. 000 

3,177,000 
759, 000 

67. 842. 000 

14. 087. 000 

Northern  Caucasia 

Total  Russia 

Servia 

Spain 

Total 

* 3,936,000 

4 4, 086, 000 

4 4, 233,  000 

4 81,929, 000 

4 79,  964,000 

4 72, 870, 000 

1.443.000 

1.145.000 

1.446.000 

1.149.000 

G) 

1,105,000 

26,  .531,  000 
28,  730, 000 

22, 833, 000 
25, 069,  000 

23. 621 . 000 

25.140.000 

585, 732, 000 

623, 656, 000 

654, 182, 000 

ASIA. 

British  India  (including 

native  States) 

Japan 

Philippine  Islands 

AFRICA. 

Algeria 

Egypt 

Union  of  South  Africa 

Total 

6,312,000 

1 132, 000 

747,000 

(■’) 

136. 000 

840. 000 

(=) 

G) 

988,000 

(^) 

3, 550, 000 

2 4,277,000 

(n 

(n 

(n 

(n 

(n 

(U 

39, 000 
1,840,000 

G) 

31,000 

1,903,000 

C) 

24,000 

(=*) 

C) 

554,000 
67, 903, 000 
30,  830, 000 

374,000 
60, 857, 000 

5 30,830,000 

394,000 
57,500,000 
5 30, 830, 000 

99, 287, 000  i 92, 061, 000 

88,  724, 000 

AUSTRALA.SIA. 

Australia: 

Queen.sland 

New  South  Wales 

i 

i 181,000 

i 213, 000 

1.54,000 

i 1()8, 000 

G) 

(^) 

4.601.000  i 3,752,000 

7.833.000  i 4,649,000 

(3) 

i (■>) 

1 Less  than  500  acres.  ^ Includes  Asiatic  Russia  (10  Governments  of). 

2 Estimate  for  1910.  £>  Census  figures  of  1911  repeated. 

3 No  official  statistics. 


6 FAKMEKS^  BULLETIN  581. 


Table  1. — Corn  crop  of  countries  named^  1911-1913 — Continued. 


Country. 

Area. 

Production. 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1911 

1912 

1913 

AUSTRALASIA— continued. 

A ustr  alia — Continued . 
Victoria 

Acres. 

20,000 

Acres. 

18,000 

Acres. 

(n 

S:! 

Bushels. 

1,013,000 

1,000 

7,000 

Bushels. 

818,000 

Bushels. 

(0 

(‘) 

(>) 

Western  Australia 

South  Australia 

1,000 

(2) 

2,000 

Total  Australia 

415,000 

340,000 

315,000 

13, 455, 000 

9, 221,000 

8, 620,000 

New  Zealand 

13,000 

6,000 

5,000 

478,000 

278,000 

220,000 

Total  Australasia 

Grand  total 

428,000 

346,000 

320, 000 

13,933,000 

9,499,000 

8,840,000 

13,479  991  000 

4,362,288,000 

3, 607, 359, 000 

1 No  official  statistics.  2 Less  than  500  acres. 


Table  2. — Total  production  of  corn  in  countries  named  in  Table  1,  1894-1913. 


Year. 

Production. 

Year. 

Production. 

Year. 

Production. 

Year. 

Production. 

1894 

Bushels. 

1.671.307.000 

2. 834.750.000 

2.964.435.000 

2. 587. 206. 000 

2. 682.619.000 

1899 

Bushels. 

2. 724.100. 000 
2,  792, 561,000 

2. 366. 883.000 

3.187.311.000 

3.066.506.000 

1904 

Bushels. 

3. 109. 252. 000 

3.461.181.000 

3. 963.645.000 

3.420. 321.000 

3.006.931.000 

1909 

Bushels. 

3.563. 226.000 

4.031.030.000 

3.479. 991.000 

4.362. 288.000 

3. 607.359.000 

1895 

1900 

1905 

1910 

1896 

1901 

1906 

1911 

1897 

1902 

1907 

1912 

1898 

1903 

1908 

1913 

CORN  FROM  ARGENTINA. 

By  Frank  Andrews. 

RECENT  IMPORTS. 

In  September  last  a large  increase  occurred  in  the  relatively  small 
imports  of  corn  into  the  United  States,  the  new  traffic  coming 
chiefly  from  Ai^gentina.  Occasional  imports  had  been  made  in 
former  years.  In  the  year  ended  June  30,  1909,  the  United  States 
imported  258,000  bushels,  of  which  195,000  bushels  came  from 
Argentina.  The  imports  declined  to  about  118,000  in  the  next  fiscal 
year  and  to  52,000  in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1911,  increasing  to 
about  53,000  in  the  following  year.  The  imports  during  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1913,  amounted  to  903,000  bushels,  of  which 

880.000  came  from  Argentina. 

The  imports  in  September,  1913,  amounted  to  522,000  bushels;  in 
October,  473,000;  in  November,  1,633,000,  and  in  December,  2,343,» 
000  bushels.  Of  these  amounts,  Argentina  furnished  in  September, 

499.000  bushels;  in  October,  421,000;  in  November,  1,509,000,  and 
in  December,  2,173,000  bushels.  Compared  with  the  production  of 
the  United  States  these  imports  are  relatively  small.  The  entire 
crop  of  Argentina,  ranging  from  175,000,000  to  300,000,000  bushels 
annually,  is  only  about  10  per  cent  of  the  average  consumption  in  the 
United  States. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK.  7 

Corn  productioji  and  exports  of  Argentina  and  the  United  States 
are  shown  in  Table  3.  Here  is  illustrated  the  fact  that  the  Argentine 
crop  goes  cliiefly  to  foreign  countries,  while  tlie  United  States  crop, 
in  still  greater  proportions,  is  consumed  at  home. 


Table  3. — Comparison  of  Argentine  and  United  States  corn  as  to  production,  exports, 

and  average  value. 


Year. 

Argentina. 

United  States. 

Average  value  i of  corn 
imported  into  the 
United  Kingdom 

from  1909-1913. 

Profbiction. 

Exports. 2 

i 

1 

Production. 

Exports^2 

year  begin- 
ning July  1. 

Argentina. 

United 

States. 

Btishels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Cents  per 
bushel. 

Cents  per 
bushel. 

1909 

177,155,000 

89, 499, 359 

2, 772,376,000 

38, 128, 498 

74 

77 

1910 

175,187,000 

104, 727, 358 

2,886,260,000 

65,614,  522 

64 

73 

1911 

3 27, 675, 000 

4,928,362 

2,531,488,000 

41,797,291 

63 

63 

1912 

295,849,000 

190,459,100 

3,124,746,000 

50,  780, 143 

71 

83 

1913  

4 196, 642, 000 

4 190, 000, 000 

2,446,988,000 

68 

68 

1 The  values  of  articles  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  include  the  value  in  the  country  of  origin, 
plus  all  costs  of  delivery  to  the  United  Kingdom.  Hence,  the  two  columns  are  comparable,  since  both 
apply  to  values  in  same  country  of  destination. 

2 Including  corn  meal  reduced  to  terms  of  corn. 

5 Crop  failure,  due  to  drought. 

4 Preliminary. 

CORN  PRICES. 

Comparing  values  of  Argentine  with  United  States  corn  in  the 
British  market  for  the  past  five  years,  it  is  found  that  in  three  years 
out  of  the  five  United  States  corn  is  valued  considerably  higher  than 
Argentine.  But  in  1911  and  in  1913  the  average  values  of  the  con- 
signments from  each  of  these  countries  were  the  same  in  the  British 
markets. 

A considerable  part  of  the  corn  imported  into  the  United  States 
from  Argentina  is  received  at  New  York,  and  it  was  sold  in  that 
city  in  November  and  December,  1913,  at  prices  ranging  from  73 
to  80  cents  a bushel,  or  several  cents  under  the  prices  of  the  No.  2 
yellow  grade  of  United  States  corn  in  that  market. 

A comparison  of  prices  of  Argentine  corn  with  other  corn  at  New 
York,  with  the  contract  grade  at  Chicago,  with  the  average  farm 
price  in  the  United  States  of  all  kinds  of  corn;  and  with  the  average 
export  value  in  Argentina  of  the  corn  imported  here  from  that 
country,  is  shown  in  Table  4. 

It  is  to  be  understood  that  the  imports  for  these  last  months  of 
1913  consisted  of  old  corn,  which  was  harvested  in  the  winter  or 
spring  of  1912-13.  Attention  is  invited  also  to  the  marked  fluctua- 
tions in  the  import  values  of  this  Argentine  corn,  ranging  from  under 
60  cents  in  September  to  over  80  cents  a bushel  in  October;  falling 
to  72  in  November,  and  further  to  62  cents  a bushel  in  December. 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


Table  4. — Comparative  cash  prices  in  the  United  Slates  of  Argentine  and  domestic  corn, 

September  to  December,  1918. 

[Cents  per  bushel.] 


A’ ear  and  month. 

Average 
import 
value  of 
Argen- 
tine 
corn.i 

Average 
farm 
price 
of  corn 
in  U.  S. 
on  1st 
of 

month. 

■Wholesale  price  at  New  A'ork,  N.  Y. 

Wholesale  prices 
at  Chicago,  lU., 
“contract”  grade 
corn. 

No.  2 yellow 
corn. 

Argentine  corn. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

1913. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

September 

59.7 

75.4 

79.5 

86.2 

71. 5 

78.5 

October 

80.3 

75.3 

76.0 

80.2 

68.0 

73.2 

November 

72.0 

70.7 

79.0 

85.0 

77.5 

77.5 

71.5 

76.2 

December 

62.2 

69.1 

73.0 

85.0 

73.2 

80.0 

65.5 

78.5 

1 Average  declared  wholesale  value  in  Argentina  of  corn  imported  into  the  United  States  from  that 
country. 


OCEAN  AND  RAILROAD  FREIGHT  RATES. 

During  the  last  three  months  of  1913  the  rates  paid  for  full  cargoes 
of  corn  from  Argentina  to  New  York  were  from  6 to  cents  per 
bushel  when  shipped  from  San  Lorenzo,  an  upriver  port  on  the  River 
Plate,  and  from  5 to  5|  cents  when  shipped  from  Rosario,  a port 
farther  down  that  river.  Rates  to  Galveston  ranged  from  5 to  TJ 
cents,  and  one  rate  was  counted  to  San  Francisco  from  Buenos  Aires 
at  about  9J  cents  per  bushel. 

The  rates  on  corn  to  New  York  from  Chicago,  over  the  cheapest 
routes  for  a number  of  years,  have  not  been  far  different  from  the 
rates  of  the  last  few  months  of  1913  to  New  York  from  San  Lorenzo, 
and  have  been  a cent  or  two  higher  a bushel  than  the  rates  from  the 
lower  River  Plate.  In  fact,  corn  is  shipped  from  Rosario,  Argentina, 
to  New  York  for  about  the  same  rate  as  is  charged  by  rail  from 
Buffalo  to  New  York.  However,  the  lake  rate  from  Chicago  to  Buf- 
falo is  frequently  as  low  as  1 cent  per  bushel,  and  rarely  averages  2 
cents  for  a season. 

To  Galveston  the  rates  of  the  last  few  months  of  1913  were  con- 
siderably lower  from  the  upriver  ports  of  Argentina  than  from  Kansas 
City.  The  rate  from  Kansas  City  to  Galveston  in  1913  was  9.8 
cents  per  bushel,  while  3 out  of  4 rates  from  Argentina  to  Galveston 
were  less  than  7 cents,  one  of  them  being  as  low  as  5.1  cents  per  bushel. 
The  ocean  rates  quoted  in  this  article  apply  to  full  cargoes;  that  is, 
where  a ship  is  chartered  to  carry  corn  only.  Regular  lines  of 
steamships,  where  smaller  lots  than  full  cargoes  are  carried,  often 
charge  lower  rates  than  are  paid  on  full  cargoes  of  corn. 

The  freight  rates  on  grain  from  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States  westward  are  considerably  higher  than  for  the  eastbound 
traffic,  since  relatively  small  lots  of  grain  are  shipped  westward. 
Corn  shipped  by  rail  from  New  York  to  Chicago  would  be  charged  14 
cents  per  bushel.  Hence  it  would  cost  from  19  to  21 cents  per  bushel 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


9 


to  pay  the  freight  on  corn  shipped  from  Argentina  to  Illinois,  by  way 
of  New  York,  at  the  rates  quoted  at  the  close  of  1913.  This  cost 
applies  oidy  to  ocean  freight  from  Argentina  plus  railroad  freight  in 
the  United  States  and  excludes  any  costs  of  transfer. 

Ocean  freight  rates  on  corn  to  Liverpool  from  Buenos  Aires  were 
from  6 to  10  cents  per  bushel  and  from  San  Lorenzo  from  8 to  about 
12 J cents  a bushel  for  the  last  few  months  of  1913.  Early  in  Octo- 
ber, 1913,  two  vessels  were  chartered  to  carry  corn  from  Rosario — one 
to  New  York  and  the  other  to  Liverpool.  The  cargo  for  New  York 
was  charged  at  tlie  rate  of  5.4  cents  per  bushel  and  the  cargo  for 
Liverpool  at  the  rate  of  6 cents  per  bushel.  The  time  from  Buenos 
Aires  to  New  York  is  about  the  same  as  from  Buenos  Aires  to  Liv- 
erpool. Fast  steamers  often  make  the  voyage  over  either  route  in 
24  days,  while  some  of  the  slower  ones  require  10  to  15  days  longer. 
Of  10  different  vessels  arriving  at  New  York  with  corn  in  November 
and  December,  1913,  3 vessels  brought  more  than  260,000  bushels 
each  and  all  but  2 brought  more  than  100,000  bushels  each.  The 
largest  cargo  of  these  10  consisted  of  285,200  bushels.  The  two 
smaller  loads  were  brought  b}^  ships  which  carried  a large  assort- 
ment of  other  cargo.  One  of  these  ships,  which  arrived  on  December 
6,  brought  about  61,000  bushels  of  corn  in  about  24,000  bags,  and 
the  cargo  included  also  nearly  11,000  quarters  of  beef,  4,100  car- 
casses of  mutton,  besides  wool,  sheepskins,  tallow,  hides,  corned  beef, 
miscellaneous  meat  products,  etc. 


ARGENTINE  CORN. 

By  W.  J.  T.  Duvel,  Crop  Technologist. 

Within  the  last  few  years  increasing  quantities  of  corn  have  been 
imported  into  the  United  States  from  the  Argentine,  most  of  which 
has  been  consigned  to  the  Corn  Products  Refining  Co.,  of  New  York, 
for  manufacturiug  purposes.  The  importations,  however,  of  the  1913 
crop  have  exceeded  those  of  former  years,  the  total  importations 
from  July  1,  1913,  to  February  13,  1914,  as  reported  by  Bradstreet's, 
being  7,132,980  bushels,  approximately  85  per  cent  of  which  was  dis- 
charged at  Atlantic  ports,  and  the  remainder  at  Gulf  ports. 

The  Argentine  being  the  corn  belt  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  the 
crop  matures  approximately  six  months  in  advance  of  corn  in  the 
United  States,  so  that  export  shipments  begin  during  the  early  part 
of  June.  The  duration  of  the  voyage  from  the  Argentine  to  tlie 
United  States  under  favorable  conditions  is  approximately  30  days. 

While  the  total  production  of  corn  in  the  Argentine  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions  is  considerably  below  the  production  in 
the  State  of  Illinois,  less  than  half  of  the  Argentine  crop  is  consumed 
within  the  Republic,  so  that  the  Argentine  exports  have  greatly 
exceeded  those  of  the  United  States  during  the  past  few  years. 

32786°— Bull.  581—14 2 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


- The  Argentine  corn  is  handled  in  burlap  bags  containing  from  130 
to  135  pounds,  in  contrast  to  the  corn  from  the  United  States,  which 
is  exported  mainly  in  bulk.  The  most  common  method  of  discharg- 
ing cargoes  at  United  States  ports  is  to  hoist  with  crane  and  tackle 
from  12  to  15  bags  at  a time  and  shift  them  to  barges  or  lighters 
alongside  the  vessel,  where  the  corn  is  inspected  as  the  bags  are 
opened.  From  7 to  15  days  are  usually  required  to  unload  a cargo, 
depending  largely  on  the  condition  and  quantity  of  the  corn  and 
the  weather. 

QUALITY  AND  CONDITION  OF  ARGENTINE  CORN. 

Corn  as  grown  in  the  Argentine  consists  almost  exclusively  of  the 
hard,  flinty  varieties  with  medium  to  small  kernels,  mostly  yellow 
in  color.  The  character  of  the  corn,  having  both  small  cobs  and 
small  kernels,  results  in  a much  lower  moisture  content  in  the  Argen- 
tine shelled  corn  than  is  normally  contained  in  the  large  dent  varie- 
ties of  the  United  States.  As  a result  of  the  small  size  of  the  kernels, 
the  Argentine  corn  can  not  carry,  without  increased  danger  of  dete- 
rioration, as  high  a percentage  of  water  as  the  larger  dent  corns  of 
the  United  States.  On  the  other  hand,  the  hard  and  firm  texture 
of  the  Argentine  corn  is  such  that  it  can  be  ‘^conditioned”  to  much 
better  advantage  than  our  dent  corns. 

Duiing  the  summer  of  1912,  through  the  courtesies  of  the  Corn 
Products  Eeflning  Co.  and  the  grain-inspection  department  of  the 
New  York  Produce  Exchange,  several  cargoes  of  corn  from  the 
Argentine  were  examined  at  the  time  of  discharge  at  the  port  of 
New  York.  The  average  results  of  mechanical  analyses  on  157 
samples  from  four  of  the  cargoes,  representing  a total  of  638,000 
bushels,  are  contained  in  Table  5.  The  data  shown  in  this  table 
represents  new  corn  of  the  crop  of  1912. 


Table  5. — Average  qualltg  and  condition  of  four  cargoes  of  Argentine  corn,  crop  of  1912, 

os  discharged  at  New  York. 


Steamship. 

Date  of 
arrival 
at  New 
York. 

Days  in 
transit. 

Number 
of  samples 
taken. 

Bushels 
in  cargo. 

Moisture 

content. 

Weight 

per 

bushel. 

Sound 

corn. 

DirL 
chaff, 
cob, etc. 

1912 

Per  cent. 

Pounds. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

A 

Oct.  19 

35 

55 

180,000 

14.55 

60.87 

93.84 

0. 10 

B 

July  8 

27 

48 

260, 000 

14.80 

60.10 

95.28 

.17 

C 

Aug.  4 

45 

28 

66, 000 

17.02 

57.  75 

63.74 

.28 

D 

Aug.  5 

34 

26 

132,  000 

15.  43 

60. 01 

90.02 

.17 

Total 

157 

638,000 

Average  of  4 

cargoes 



15.10 

60.05 

90.50 

.16 

From  Table  5 it  will  be  seen  that  the  average  moisture  content 
of  the  total  638,000  bushels  was  15.1  per  cent,  the  weight  per  bushel 
more  than  60  pounds,  the  percentage  of  sound  corn  90.5,  and  the 
dirt,  chaff,  cob,  etc.,  approximately  one-sixth  of  1 per  cent. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


11 


During  the  months  of  December,  1913,  and  January,  1914,  sam- 
ples to  the  number  of  591  were  secured  from  16  different  cargoes  of 
Argentine  corn  as  discharged  at  New  York-  and  at  Gulf  ports.  The 
average  moisture  content  of  these  samples  (old  corn  of  the  1913 
crop)  was  13.7  per  cent,  or  6.6  per  cent  loss  than  the  average  mois- 
ture content  of  corn  shipped  from  country  stations  in  central  Illinois 
durmg  December,  1913,  and  January,  1914,  the  latter  being  new 
corn  of  the  1913  crop.  From  the  standpoint  of  moisture  content 
alone  this  represents  a difference  in  value  of  approximately  5f  cents 
per  bushel,  based  on  a New  Y"ork  price  of  about  70  cents  per  bushel, 
not  giving  consideration  to  the  increased  danger  of  deterioration  of 
hie-h-moisture  corn.  While  the  average  moisture  content  of  the 
Argentine  corn  is  low,  a considerable  quantity  is  damaged,  musty, 
sour,  and  heating  when  discharged.  This  is  evidenced  by  the  fact 
that  of  the  591  samples  previously  referred  to,  the  maxhnum  mois- 
ture content  was  41.6  per  cent,  the  minimum  being  9.2  per  cent. 

Attention  is  also  called  to  the  distinctly  inferior  quality  and  con- 
dition of  the  corn  from  steamer  C as  shown  in  Table  15.  This  ship 
was  tvdce  delayed  during  transit  as  the  result  of  accident,  and  some  of 
the  corn  was  iii  the  ship  more  than  60  days,  and  some  of  it  had 
become  sea  damaged  and  ship  damaged.  Excluding  three  samples 
which  showed  a moisture  content  of  32.7,  34.8,  and  37  per  cent,  the 
average  for  the  cargo  w^ould  be  14.9  per  cent. 

WEEVIL  IN  ARGENTINE  CORN. 

A considerable  quantity  of  Argentine  corn  is  likewise  infested 
with  weevil.  Samples  of  screenings  from  practically  all  of  the 
cargoes  have  been  submitted  to  Dr.  F.  II.  Chittenden,  in  charge  of 
Truck-Crop  and  Stored-Product  Insect  Investigations  of  the  Bureau 
of  Entomology,  but  no  new  species  have  been  found. 

CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. 

A w^ide  diversity  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  chemical  composition 
of  Argentine  corn  as  compared  with  the  dent  varieties  of  the  United 
States.  While  the  data  available  are  not  sufficient  to  justify  the 
drawing  of  any  deffiiite  conclusions,  the  results  of  the  chemical 
analyses  of  a limited  number  of  samples  of  Argentine  corn  as  dis- 
charged at  New  Y"ork  indicate  that  the  Argentine  corn  is  superior, 
from  the  standpoint  of  chemical  composition,  to  our  dent  corn  as 
loaded  for  export  at  our  Atlantic  and  Gulf  poids,  as  showni  in  Table  6. 

Table  6 shows  the  average  results  of  the  chemical  analyses  of  98  sam- 
ples of  Argentine  corn,  representing  4 cargoes  v/ith  a total  of  638,000 
bushels  of  the  crop  of  1912,  as  discharged  at  New  York,  together  with 
the  average  of  the  analyses  of  129  samples  of  North  American  corn, 
representmg  two  cargoes  of  the  1910  crop  and  two  cargoes  of  the  1911 
crop  with  a total  of  910,146  bushels  as  loaded  for  export. 


12 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


Table  G. — Chem'cal  composition  of  four  cargoes  of  Argentine  (lint  corn  as  discharged 
at  New  York  and  of  four  cargoes  of  North  American  dent  corn  as  loaded  for  export, 
calculated  to  a water-free  basis d 


Item. 

Argentine 
corn  crop 
of  1912  as 
imported 
at  New 
York. 

North 

A merican 
corn  crops 
of  1910  and 
1911  as 
loaded  for 
export. 

Ash 

Per  cent. 

1.  72 

Per  cent. 
1.43 
4. 07 
9. 81 
2.18 
G.  19 

Ether  extract  (oil) 

5.  52 

Protein 

11.  01 

Crude  fiber 

1.99 

Pentosans 

G.  02 

Invert  sugar 

.30 

.38 

Sucrose 

1.  08 

1. 13 

Acid  calculated  as  acetic 

.33 

. 28 

Undetermined 

72.  03 

74.  53 

1 Chemical  analyses  of  the  individual  samples  made  by  Cattle  Food  and  Grain  Laboratory  of  the  Bureau 
cf  Chemistry. 


From  Tabic  6 it  will  be  scon  that  the  ether  extract  or  oil  was 
approximately  1.5  per  cent  greater  in  the  Argentine  corn  than  in  the 
United  States  corn,  while  the  protein  was  1.2  per  cent  greater.  In 
the  consideration  of  these  anai3"ses  it  is  necessary  to  note  that  they 
represent  commercial  corn  and  are  therefore  not  comparable  with 
the  analyses  shown  in  textbooks,  which  are  based  on  selected,  hand- 
shelled  samples. 


THE  WORLD  OATS  CROP. 

By  Charles  M.  Daugherty. 

The  cultivation  of  oats  on  an  extensive  scale  is  an  industry  con- 
fined almost  exclusively  to  the  northern  and  central  states  of  Europe, 
to  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Central  States  of  the  United  States, 
and  to  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Of  the  144  million  acres  which, 
as  nearly  as  can  be  estimated,  constitute  the  world’s  oats  area, 
upward  of  85  per  cent  is  in  the  above-named  territory.  Elsewhere 
than  in  Europe  and  North  America  the  cereal  is  not  extensively 
produced.  No  statistical  account  exists  of  its  culture  in  Asia, 
excepting  in  Asiatic  Kussia,  where  about  6 million  acres  a year 
are  raised,  and  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  where  in  1910  about  300,000 
acres  were  reported.  In  Africa,  the  crop  flourishes  only  in  Tunis, 
Algeria,  and  the  Union  of  South  Africa;  in  the  two  first-named 
colonies  tlie  total  surface  under  this  grain  is  only  about  a half  mil- 
lion acres  annually;  in  the  last  named,  the  census  of  1911  returned 
an  outturn  of  9,661,000  bushels.  In  Argentina,  Uruguay,  and 
Chile,  the  only  South  American  states  that  report  crop  acreages, 
the  yearly  sowuigs  cover  an  extent  of  little  more  than  3 million 
acres.  In  fact,  no  country  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere  figures  pre- 
eminently as  an  oats  grower;  the  area  in  the  Australasian  colonies 
even,  where  conditions  might  seem  favorable  to  the  development  of 


THE  AGRICULTUKAL  OUTLOOK. 


13 


tlic  iiidiistry,  aggregates  little  more  than  a million  acres.  It  is  note- 
worthy, however,  that  lately  its  exploitation  has  attracted  tmusiial 
attention  in  the  Provhice  of  Buenos  Aires,  Argentma.  Since  1908 
seedings  have  ex])anded  from  less  than  a million  to  over  3 million 
acres;  production,  from  33  million  bushels  to  69  million  m 1912  and 
to  116  million  in  1913.  As  the  grain  is  raised  almost  solely  for  ship- 
ment abroad,  this  smgle  Province  has  suddenly  taken  rank  secojid 
only  to  Russia  as  an  exporter,  61  million  bushels  having  been  em- 
barked thence  in  1912  and  59  niillion  in  1913. 

Tlie  distribution  of  the  oat  area  of  the  two  principal  producing 
Continents  is  about  85  million  acres  annually  in  Europe,  38-^-  million 
in  thelhuted  States,  and  lOJ  million  in  Canada.  In  Europe  tlie  oats 
belt  lies  almost  wholly  in  latitudes  north  of  those  of  upper  Hungary, 
farmers  to  the  south  as  a whole  paying  little  attention,  compara- 
tivel}^,  to  the  crop.  Of  the  entire  European  acreage,  over  75  million 
acres  lie  north  of  the  parallels  above  referred  to,  while  m the  southern 
countries,  i.  e.,  Portugal,  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  Hungary,  Roumania, 
Bulgaria,  Servia,  and  Turkey,  an  annual  total  of  less  than  8 million 
acres  is  sown.  Causes  contributing  to  the  partial  centralization  of 
the  industr}?"  in  north  and  central  Europe  are  obvious.  Summer 
oats,  the  prmcipal  variety  sown,  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  shorter 
seasons  of  warm  weather  characteristic  of  northern  latitudes.  From 
time  immemorial  the  grain  has  been  in  the  more  northerly  parts  of 
that  Continent  the  favorite  cereal  food  for  aiiimals,  especially  for 
horses.  In  addition  to  hay,  barley,  pulse,  and  the  various  root 
crops — swedes,  turnips,  mangolds,  and  potatoes — which  are  dug  and 
fed  there  by  millions  of  tons  each  year,  oats  has  been,  especially  in 
whiter,  an  mdispensable  article  of  provender.  Increasing  demand 
was  a constant  hnpulse  to  extension  of  native  production.  In  mod- 
ern times  the  anunal  ration  has  been  modified,  particularly  in  coun- 
tries bordering  on  the  English  Channel,  by  extraordmarily  heawy 
imports  of  oil-cake  (including  oil-seeds  from  which  cake  is  manu- 
factured), barley,  locust  beans,  etc.  Maize,  though  not  so  popular 
as  an  anunal  food,  especially  for  swine,  as  in  the  United  States,  is  also 
imported  in  great  volume.  Oats,  however,  has  retamed  its  tradi- 
tional rank  as  a stock  food  and  the  tendency  in  many  countries  has 
been  toward  an  expansion  rather  than  a contraction  of  its  cidture. 
Moreover,  the  great  European  oat  belt  lies  almost  wholly  m latitudes 
wRere  maize  wnll  not  mature,  and  hence  the  smaller  gram  occupies 
to  some  extent  an  economic  position  there  as  an  indigenous  live- 
stock food  similar  to  that  held  by  corn  in  the  United  States. 

Of  the  85  million  acres  of  oats  in  Europe,  about  43  million  are  in 
Russia,  11  million  in  Germany,  10  million  in  France,  5 million  in 
Austria,  4 million  in  the  United  Kingdom,  3 million  in  the  Scandi- 
navian states — Sweden,  Norw-ay,  and  Denmark — aud  1 million  in 


14 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


Belgium  and  Netherlands  combined.  Relative  to  other  grain  cultiva- 
tion, the  crop  in  each  of  these  countries  presents  features  suggestive 
of  dietary,  economic,  and  commercial  customs  of  the  people.  In  the 
United  Kingdom,  Scandinavian  states,  and  Austria  a wider  extent  of 
land  is  devoted  to  oat  cultivation  than  to  any  other  cereal.  The 
short  growing  season,  the  universal  use  of  porridge  as  a breakfast  dish 
in  countries  north  of  the  English  Channel,  and  the  marked  preference 
for  the  grain  and  straw  as  a food  for  some  species  of  animals,  have  all 
contributed  to  give  its  culture  a preeminent  place  in  the  agriculture 
of  these  countries.  Production  in  the  United  Kingdom  even  then 
does  not  suffice  for  domestic  needs.  From  50  million  to  60  million 
bushels  a year  are  drawm  from  foreign  sources.  The  French,  the 
greatest  consumers  of  wheat  per  capita  in  Europe,  in  efforts  to  make 
native  supplies  meet  domestic  requirements,  devote  a larger  area  to 
wheat  than  to  any  other  cereal,  with  oats  second.  In  each  of  the  great 
rye-consuming  nations,  Germany  and  Netherlands,  the  surface 
annually  under  oats  ranks  next  in  breadth  to  that  of  their  great  bread 
grain.  The  premier  oat-producing  country  of  the  world,  howrever, 
is  Russia;  though  the  area  is  much  less  extensive  than  that  of  rye  or 
wheat,  it  represents  annually  about  half  the  entire  European  acreage 
under  this  cereal.  The  production,  enormous  in  volume,  is  consumed 
for  the  most  part  by  the  native  live  stock,  as  is  the  case  in  most  coun- 
tries. Annual  exports  during  the  past  few  years  have  ranged  be- 
tween 58  million  and  96  million  bushels,  consigned  in  the  order  of  their 
importance  as  purchasers  to  the  United  Kingdom,  Netherlands,  Ger- 
many, France,  and  to  other  European  countries. 

On  the  North  American  Continent  oats,  measured  by  the  extent 
cultivated,  is  the  third  cereal  in  importance  in  the  United  States 
and  the  second  in  Canada.  Tliough  the  acreage  in  the  United  States 
is  not  so  extensive  as  that  of  the  Russian  Empire,  the  total  yield  is 
superior,  thereby  giving  the  Republic  rank  by  a small  margin  as  the 
leading  producer  of  the  world;  the  normal  annual  output  of  each 
country  is  upward  of  a billion  32-pound  bushels. 

In  late  years  the  Canadian  acreage  has  increased  rapidly  and  is 
now^  almost  equal  to  that  of  Germany;  the  increase,  however,  has 
been  mostly  in  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta;  in  the  Maritime  Prov- 
inces and  Manitoba  the  industry  has  made  but  moderate  progness. 
Almost  the  entire  North  American  crop  is  consumed  on  that  conti- 
nent. Excepting  expoi'ts  of  33  million  bushels  in  1912  from  the 
United  States,  the  quantities  annually  shipped  abroad  have  never 
exceeded  from  1 to  2 million  bushels  and  imports  have  been  of  like 
negligible  proportions.  The  record  exports  from  Canada  were  lOJ 
million  bushels  in  1912-13;  imports  are  practically  nil. 

In  1913  the  so-called  world’s  crop  amounted  to  4,672  million 
bushels,  over  53  million  more  than  that  of  the  preceding  year  and  the 


THE  AGEICULTURAL  OUTLOOK, 


15 


largest  ever  harvested.  In  every  producing  country  of  noteworthy 
importance  as  a producer,  yields  were  heavier  than  in  1912,  except- 
ino;  a fading  off  of  near  300  million  bushels  in  the  United  States. 
Table  7 gives  the  details  of  area  and  production  for  the  past  three 
years  in  all  countries  for  which  estimates  are  available.  In  making 
comparisons  between  certain  countries  it  might  be  noted  that  in  the 
case  of  a few — notably  Austria,  Denmark,  France,  Roumania,  Great 
Britain,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand — production  is  stated  in  bushels 
of  measure,  for  other  countries  in  32-pound  bushels.  As  the  measured 
bushel  of  oats — -particularly  in  northern  Europe  — weighs  on  an 
average  39  pounds,  the  crop  of  a country  measured  by  that  standard 
would  not  show  its  real  magnitude  when  compared  with  that  of 
another  country  estimated  in  bushels  of  32  pounds.  Original  statis- 
tics, in  units  of  weight,  however,  are  not  obtainable  for  all  countries. 

Table  7. — Oat  crop  of  countries  named,  1911-1913. 


Country, 

Area. 

Production. 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1911 

1912 

1913 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

United  States 

Canada: 

New  Brunswick 

Quebec 

Ontario 

Manitoba 

Saskatchewan 

Alberta 

Other 

Total  Canada .... 

Mexico 

Total 

A ares. 

37, 76;i,  000 

A ores. 
37,917,000 

Acres. 

38,399,000 

Bushels. 

922,298,000 

Bushels. 

1,418,337,000 

Bushels. 
1,121,768, 000 

208,000 

1.430.000 

2. 800. 000 

1.308.000 

2. 333.000 

1.221.000 
325, 000 

195.000 

1.296. 000 
2,  785, 000 

1.348.000 

2.556.000 

1.461.000 

325. 000 

195.000 

1.303.000 

2.814.000 

1.398. 000 

2.755.000 
1, 639,  GOO 

330. 000 

5,986,000 

37.500.000 

84.860.000 

60.037.000 
107,594,000 

59.034.000 

10.168.000 

5,607,000 

33.516. 000 

97.053. 000 

57. 154.000 
117,537,000 

67. 630. 000 

13. 132.000 

5,946,000 

39.025.000 

105.159. 000 

56.759.000 

114.112.000 

71.542.000 

12. 126. 000 

9, 631,000 

9, 966,000 

10,434,000 

365, 179, 000 

391,629, 000 

404, 669, 000 

(Q 

(e 

(9 

17,000 

17,000 

17,000 

1,287,494,000 

1,809, 983,000 

1,526,  454,000 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Argentina 

Chile 

Uruguay 

Total 

1,980,000 

58.000 

29.000 

2, 548,000 

69.000 

86.000 

2, 946,000 

(9 

(9 

47,192,000 

1,861,000 

590,000 

69, 169,000 

3.380.000 

1.825.000 

115, 879, 000 

4.000. 000 

2.000. 000 

49, 643, 000 

74,374,000 

121,879, 000 

EUROPE. 

Austria-Hungary : 

Austria 

Hungary  proper 

Croatia-Slavonia T? 

Bosnia-Hcrzegovina 

Total  Austria-Hun- 
gary  

Belgium 

Bulgaria 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Roumania 

4. 641.000 

2. 653.000 

247.000 

229.000 

4.613.000 

2.473.000 

239. 000 

203.000 

4.707.000 

2.866.000 
256, 000 

(9 

135,143,000 

89,656,000 

5.554.000 

5.405.000 

146,376,000 
76, 768,000 

3.311.000 

4. 766.000 

160,091,000 
96,634, 000 

6.163.000 

5.981.000 

7,770,000 

7,528,000 

235,758,000 

231,221,000 

268,869,000 

639.000 

447.000 

2 996,000 

(1) 

9.863.000 
10,694,000 

1. 270. 000 

342.000 

2 264,000 

992.000 

(1) 

(9 

(’-) 

(9 

9.840.000 
10, 841,000 

1.254.000 

341.000 

(9 

943.000 

(9 

(9 

(9 

(9 

9.881.000 
10,967,000 

1. 251. 000 
342,000 

(9 

1.290.000 

43.249.000 

10.421.000 

41.188.000 

22. 642. 000 

303.328.000 

530. 764. 000 

40.973.000 

17. 724. 000 
8,593,000 

26.222.000 

38,000,000 

11.500.000 

42.395.000 

26.618.000 

313.656.000 

586.987.000 

28.306.000 

16.317.000 

11.607.000 

20.775.000 

39.000. 000 

12.000. 000 

43.300.000 

27.219.000 

322. 131.000 

669. 231. 000 

43.469.000 
29, 000.000 

11.734.000 

35. 138.000 

1 No  official  statistics. 


2 Area  in  1907  (census). 


16 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  581, 


Table  7. — Oat  crop  of  countries  named,  1911-1913 — Continued. 


Area.  Production. 


1911 

1912 

1913 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1 QROPE— continued. 

Russia: 

Russia  proper 

Acres. 

38,398,000 

2. 894. 000 

1.311.000 

A eves. 

A cres. 

Bushels. 
690, 753, 000 

78. 465.000 

23.681.000 

1 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Poland 

Northern  Caucasia 

Total  Russia  (Ku- 

42,603,000 

145,785,000 

147,512,000 

792,899,000 

972,111,000 

11,169,490,000 

259,000 

1,268,000 

1,952,000 

262, 000 
1, 279, 000 
(2) 

(2) 

1,351,000 

(Q 

5,050,000 

33.858.000 

63. 462. 000 

5,477,000 

23.035.000 

75.900.000 

6, 889, 000 
25,333,000 
86,000,(X)0 

Spain 

Sweden 

United  Kingdom: 

England 

1.841.000 
206, 000 
964, 000 

1.040.000 

1,866,000 

207. 000 

956. 000 
1,0-46, 000 

1.772.000 
202,000 
938,000 

1.049.000 

74.119.000 
7,087,000 

36.751.000 

59.207.000 

68.431.000 
7,040,000 

.37,928,000 

66. 867.000 

70.387.000 
6,981,000 

37.148.000 

66.610.000 

A\  ales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Total,  United  King- 
dom  

4,051,000 

4,075,000 

3,961,000 

177,164,000 

180, 266, 000 

181,126,000 

Total 

2,353,295,000 

2,584,171,000 

2, 960, 929, 000 

ASIA. 

Cyprus 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

466,000 

419,000 

500,000 

Russia: 

Central  Asia 

1.024.000 

3. 953. 000 
2, 000 

12.197.000 

53.272.000 
37, 000 

Siberia 

Trans-Caucasia 

Tctal  Russia  (Asiatic) 

Total 

4,979,000 

(^^) 

0) 

65, 506, 000 

95,473,000 

C) 

65,972,000 

95,892,000 

AFRICA. 

Algeria 

434.000 

148.000 
(2) 

476.000 

124.000 
0) 

539, 000 
(2) 

(2) 

11,520, 000 

4.650.000 

9.661.000 

12,  .351, 000 
2,067,000 
* 9,661,000 

17,973,000 
4,1:34,000 
4 9,661,000 

'Tunis 1 

Union  of  South  Africa 

Total 

1 

2.5,831,000 

24,079,000 

31,768,000 

AUSTRALASIA. 

Australia: 

Queensland 

:: 1 

2,000 

78,000 

.393,000 

78.000 

62.000 
64,000 

1,000 

71.000 

302.000 

108.000 

84.000 

51.000 

4,000 

(2) 

(2) 

156,000 

(2) 

0) 

52,000 

1.756.000 
10,005,000 

1.172.000 
801,000 

2. 128.000 

6,000 

1.191.000 

4.730.000 

1.392.000 
992,000 

1,. 552, 000 

85,000 

(2) 

(2) 

1.726,000 
' (2) 

0) 

New  South  Wales 

Victoria 

South  Australia 

Western  Australia 

'Tasmania 

Total  Australia 

677,000 

617,000 

874,000 

15,914,000 

9, 863, 000 

16, 625, 000 

New  Zealand 

.303,000 

404,000 

387, 000 

10,412,000 

20,282,000 

14,01:3,000 

'fotal  Australa‘:'Ia 

Grand  total 

980, 000 

1,021,000 

1,261,000 

26,326,000 

30,145,000 

30,638,000 

j 

3,808,561,000 

4,618,644,000 

4,672,168,000 

1 

' IncliKles  Asiatic  Rus.sia  (10  Governments  of).  ^ Included  in  European  Russia. 

2 No  official  statistics.  ^ Repetition  of  1911  census  figures. 


Table  8. — Total  production  of  oats  in  countries  named  in  Table  7,  1895-1913. 


Year. 

IToduction. 

Year. 

Production. 

Year. 

Production. 

Year. 

Production. 

189.5 

Bushels. 

3.008.154.000 

2.847.115.000 

2.63.3.971.000 

2. 903. 974. 000 

3. 256. 256. 000 

1900 

Bushels. 

3.166.002. 000 

2. 862. 615. 000 
3, 626,  :30:3, 000 
3,378,0.34,000 

3.611.302.000 

1905 

Bushels. 

3.510.167.000 

3.544.961.000 

3.603.898.000 

3,  .591, 012, 000 

4.312.882.000 

1910 

Bushels. 

4.182.410.000 

3.808.561.000 

4.618.644.000 

4.672. 168.000 

1896 

1901.  ... 

1906 

1911 

1897 

1902.  .. 

1907 

1912 

1898. 

1903  

1904  

1908 

1913 

1899. 

1909 

THE  AGEICULTUKAL  OUTLOOK. 


17 


OATS  FROM  CANADA. 

By  Frank  Andrews. 

T]io  increased  importation  of  corn  from  Argentina  has  been  accom- 
panied by  an  unusual  importation  of  oats  from  Canada  into  the 
Ignited  States.  Relatively  small  consignments  were  received  in 
July,  August,  and  September,  1913,  and  with  October  a larger 
movement  began.  In  that  month  the  total  imports  of  oats  into  the 
United  States  amounted  to  about  2,525,000  bushels,  in  November 
to  5,132,000,  in  December  to  5,578,000,  and  in  January,  1914, 

2.959.000.  All  but  a very  small  proportion  of  those  imports  was 
received  from  Canada,  the  amounts  from  other  countries  being  but 
a few  hundred  busliels  at  the  most  in  a month.  The  total  imports 
during  the  four  months  ending  January,  1914,  amounted  to  over 

16.000. 000  bushels,  or  more  than  the  total  imports  during  the  seven 
years  beginning  July  1,  1906,  and  ending  June  30,  1913.  The  in- 
creased importation  followed  a short  harvest.  The  oat  crop  of  the 
Ihiited  States  in  1913  was  297,000,000  bushels  under  the  crop  of  1912, 
which,  however,  was  the  largest  on  record,  and  from  which  nearly 

34.000. 000  bushels  were  exported  from  the  United  States.  In  1911 
the  short  crop  of  922,000,000  bushels  was  followed  by  an  importa-' 
tion,  chiefly  from  Canada,  of  2,622,000  bushels.  The  crops,  imports, 
and  exports  for  a series  of  years  are  shown  in  Table  9. 

The  average  farm  price  of  oats  in  the  United  States  on  December  1, 
1913,  was  39.2  cents,  or  7.3  cents  per  bushel  above  the  corresponding 
price  December  1,  1912.  For  the  month  of  December,  1913,  the 
cash  prices  of  contract  oats  at  Chicago  ranged  from  37t  cents  to  40 J- 
cents  per  bushel  and  in  the  corresponding  month  of  1912,  311  to  33-J 
cents  per  bushel;  the  increase  in  price  in  December,  1913,  was  approxi- 
mately the  same  both  on  the  farms  of  the  United  States  and  at  Chi- 
cago, the  increase  being  not  far  from  7 cents  per  bushel.  In  1910, 
when  the  crop  was  about  5 per  cent  greater  than  that  of  1913,  the 
price  at  Chicago  in  December  ranged  from  31  to  321  cents  per  bushel 
for  contract  oats,  or  about  the  same  as  in  1912,  and  the  average  farm 
price  for  the  United  States  December  1,  1910,  was  34.4  cents,  or  2.5 
cents  above  1912.  The  1910  crop  was  not  low  enough  to  invite  im- 
ports to  any  extent,  the  total  receipts  from  foreign  countries  in  the  12 
months  following  July  1,  1910,  being  slightly  over  107,000  bushels.  In 
the  following  year,  however,  when  production  dropped  below  1 billion 
bushels,  the  farm  price  on  December  1 rose  to  45  cents  per  bushel, 
or  about  one-thhd  more  than  in  the  preceding  year;  and  the  Chicago 
prices  were  from  45f  to  47f  cents  per  bushel,  while  the  imports  in  the 
fiscal  year  beginning  July  1,  1911,  rose  to  2,622,000  bushels,  the  high- 
est figure  for  3 years. 

32786°— Bull.  581—14 3 


18 


FAEMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  the  short  crop  and  tlie  lar^e  imports 
of  oats  for  1913  were  not  attended  by  a great  increase  of  price  in 
the  United  States. 


Table  9. — Production,  exports,  and  imports  of  oats,  for  the  United  States,  1906-1913. 


Year. 

I’roduction. 

Exports 
(domestic.)? 
12  months 
liepinning 
July  1. 

Imports,  12  months  beginning  July  1. 

From 

Canada. 

From  other 
countries. 

Total. 

1906 

Bushels. 

964. 905.000 

754. 443. 000 

807.156.000 

1.007.129.000 

1.186.341.000 

922. 298. 000 

1.418.337.000 

1.121.768.000 

Bushels. 
4,014, 042 
1,158,622 
1,510,230 
1,685,474 
2,044,  912 
2,171,503 
33,759,177 

Bushels. 

72, 707 
273, 826 
5,047, 636 
946, 479 
97,062 
2, 609, 307 
708, 033 

Bushels. 
1,845 
90,481 
1,619,353 
88, 032 
10, 256 
13,050 
15, 866 

Bushels. 
74,552 
364,307 
6, 606, 989 
1,034,511 
107,318 
2,622,357 
723,899 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

The  oat  crop  of  Canada  in  1908-1912  averaged  328,000,000  bush- 
els a year,  of  which  2 per  cent  was  exported.  Hence  the  average 
yearly  surplus  of  Canada  was  equal  to  only  0.6  of  1 per  cent  of  the 
average  crop  of  the  United  ^States.  More  than  one-half  of  the 
Canadian  production  of  1908-1912  was  harvested  in  the  region 
extending  from  the  crest  of  the  Canadian  Rocky  Mountains  to 
I lake  Superior,  and  embraced  in  the  Provinces  of  Alberta,  Saskat- 
chewan, and  Manitoba.  The  crops  of  the  Province  of  Ontario  also 
were  large  ones,  usually  exceeding  those  of  any  single  province  except 
Saskatchewan;  hence,  the  principal  oat-producing  regions  of  Canada 
border  on  the  United  States  from  eastern  New  York  to  western 
Idaho,  and  are  connected  by  convenient  rail  or  water  transportation 
with  most  of  the  leading  grain  markets  of  this  country. 


OTHER  WORLD  CROPS. 

By  Charles  M.  Daugherty. 

TRE  WORLD  BARLEY  CROP. 

Barley  has  a remarkable  adaptability  to  different  environments. 
It  is  a favorite  grain  in  a number  of  subtropical  regions;  is  the  sec- 
ond most  important  grain  in  Japan,  and  continues  to  hold  its  place 
in  the  countries  of  the  ancient  civilizations  in  western  Asia  and 
bordering  the  Mediterranean.  Its  cultivation  in  v/estern  Asia  is 
mentioned  in  very  ancient  writings,  and  a wild,  tv/o-rowed  barley  is 
still  found  in  Palestine  that  has  been  claimed  to  be  the  parent  of 
the  cultivated  variety.  Notwithstanding  its  apparent  southern 
origin,  it  is  grown  more  successfully  than  any  other  gram  in  extreme 
northern  latitudes,  being  often  the  leading  grain  crop  in  such  regions, 


THE  AGRICULTUEAL  OUTLOOK. 


19 


particularly  in  northern  Europe  and  in  Iceland.  It  grows  also  at 
very  high  elevations. 

Wliile  barley  is  used  largely  for  malting  purposes,  it  forms  the 
principal  dependence  for  stock  feed  in  northern  regions  not  suitable 
for  the  growing  of  crops  more  generally  appreciated  as  food  for  live 
stock.  Its  excellence  for  this  purpose  also  assists  to  maintain  its 
importance  in  the  more  southern  latitudes. 

Similarly,  its  use  as  an  important  human  food,  which  in  ancient 
times  was  very  general,  still  persists  in  Japan,  in  western  Asia,  and 
in  north  Africa,  while  in  districts  of  the  north  of  Europe,  where 
climatic  conditions  are  too  rigorous  for  other  cereal  crops,  barley 
becomes  the  main  dependence  for  bread,  as  does  rye  in  the  less  ex- 
treme northern  latitudes.  Its  use  elsewhere  is  general,  but  not 
large,  being  most  commonly  utilized  in  the  form  of  ‘‘pearE’  barley 
for  soups,  etc. 

Though  the  production  of  barley  in  this  country,  excepting  that 
gi^own  in  the  Pacific  Coast  States,  is  at  present  important  only  in 
those  States  settled  largely  by  farmers  from  the  northern  regions 
of  Europe  familiar  with  the  cultivation  of  this  grain  in  their  former 
home  lands,  it  is  a crop  suitable  for  a large  portion  of  the  country, 
including  the  Southern  States. 

The  production  in  the  United  States  is  increasing  more  rapidly 
than  any  of  the  other  leading  cereals.  From  1870  to  the  banner 
cereal  year  1912  it  increased  ninefold,  against  fourfold  for  oats, 
threefold  for  corn  and  wheat,  and  twofold  for  rye. 

The  international  trade  in  barley  is  nearly  one-third  as  large  as 
that  in  wheat,  but  is  material  only  for  a few  countries,  almost  two- 
thirds  of  that  exported  coming  from  Russia,  and  considerably  more 
than  half  of  the  total  imports  being  taken  by  Germany.  German 
imports  in  1913  were  close  to  150  million  bushels,  and  those  into 
Great  Britain  over  50  million.  Exports  from  both  countries  are 
insignificant.  The  N'etherlands  imported  over  40  million  bushels, 
which,  coupled  with  exports  almost  as  great,  show  the  movement  to 
have  been  largely  through,  rather  than  merely  into,  that  country. 
Belgium  imported  over  17  million  bushels.  Imports  into  other 
countries  are  of  little  moment. 

Russia’s  contribution  of  about  177  million  bushels  to  the  inter- 
national trade,  in  1913  was  supplemented  by  exports  of  about  30 
million  from  the  Netherlands,  17  from  Roumania,  14  from  Canada, 
12  from  the  United  States,  12  from  Hungary,  and  10  from  India, 
with  relatively  small  exports  from  other  countries. 


20 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  581, 


Table  10. — Barley  crop  of  countries  named,  1911-1913. 


. I Area.  1 Troduction. 

Country.  - - y [-  - 


1 1911 

1912 

1913 

Acres. 

7, 499, 000 

1911 

1912 

1913 

:i^ORTH  AMERICA. 

United  States 

Acres. 

7, 627, 000 

Acres. 
7,530, 000 

Bushels. 
160, 240, 000 

Bushels. 

223,824,000 

Bushels. 
178, 189,000 

Canada: 

New  Brunswick 

3,000 
100, 000 
520,  000 

448.000 

274. 000 

164.000 
13,000 

3,000 

94. 000 

512. 000 

481.000 

292. 000 

187. 000 

13. 000 

2,000 

89. 000 

485. 000 

496. 000 

332. 000 

197. 000 

12. 000 

79, 000 
2,  271,000 
13,  722, 000 
14,949,000 
8,661,000 
4, 356, 000 
377,000 

74, 000 
2,  226, 000 

15. 093. 000 

15. 826. 000 

9. 575. 000 

6.179.000 
405, 000 

74,000 

2.263.000 

14.589.000 

14.305.000 

10. 421.000 

6.334.000 
333, 000 

Quebec 

(Ontario 

Manitoba 

Saskatchewan 

Alberta 

Other 

Total  Canada 

1,522, 000 

1,582,000 

1,613,000 

44,415,000 

49,378,000 

48,319,000 

Mexico 

(0 

(Q 

(}) 

6, 500, 000 

6,  500, 000 

7, 000, 000 

Total 

211,155,000 

279,  702, 000 

2.33,508,000 

EUROPE. 

Austria-Hungary : 

Austria 

2,  710, 000 
2,  736, 000 

158.000 

180. 000 

2,634,000 
2,  603, 000 

156. 000 

220. 000 

2. 699. 000 

2. 866. 000 
158, 000 

(Q 

69, 383,  000 
73, 596, 000 

2. 640. 000 

2. 970. 000 

74. 145.000 

70. 140. 000 

1.978.000 

2. 857. 000 

75.923.000 

75.845.000 

2.956.000 

3.904.000 

Ilungarv  proper 

Croatia-Siavonia 

B osnia-Herzegov  ina 

Total  Austria-Hun- 
gary  

5,784,000 

5,613,000 

148,589,000 

119,120, 000 

158, 628, 000 

Belgium 

83, 000 
621,000 

2 578, 000 
(0 

1,908,000 
3, 917,  000 
612,  000 
69,  000 

2 89,  000 
1,253,000 

84, 000 

G) 

(Q 

(Q 

1. 877. 000 
3,  928,  000 

604,  000 
66,  000 
(Q 

1.235.000 

84,  000 
(0 
(') 

(*) 

1,  S90, 000 

4,  087,  000 
620,  000 
66, 000 
(Q 

1,390,000 

4,  445,  000 
12, 390,  OOO 
21,016,  OCO 
6,631,000 

47.631.000 
145, 132, 000 

10,  882, 000 
3, 416,  000 
2,  550,  000 

26. 157. 000 

4. 316. 000 
10, 000,  000 
22,  872,  two 

6,  759, 000 
49,  079, 000 
159, 924,  000 
8,  403,  000 
3,  364, 000 

3. 086. 000 
21,295,000 

4. 142. 000 
10, 000, 000 
23,000,000 

6. 368. 000 

48.370. 000 
188,  709,  000 

10. 803. 000 

3. 296. 000 

3. 202. 000 

27. 339. 000 

Bulgaria 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Nonvav...  . 

Roumania 

Russia: 

Russia  proper 

23,013,000 
1,240,000 
3,  836, 000 

320,  959, 000 
27,  938,  000 
55, 296, 000 

Boland 

Northern  Cauca,sia 

Total  Russia  (Euro- 
Iiean)  s 

28,  089,  000 

4 28,  873,000 

431,197, 000 

404, 193,  000 

4 464,  200, 000 

4 574,118, 000 

Servia 

255,  000 
3, 567, 009 
446,  000 

257,  000 
3,  298,  000 
(0 

(Q 

3,  869, 000 

(Q 

4, 609, 000 
86, 792, 000 
13,  725, 000 

4,  777,  000 
59,  994,  000 
13,  660, 000 

3,  445,  000 
68,  772, 000 
17,000,000 

Spain 

Sweden 

United  Kingdom: 

E ngland 

1, 337,  000 
87,000 
174,  000 
158,  000 

1, 365, 000 
92,000 
192,  000 
165,  000 

1,  470,  000 
90,  000 

198.000 

173.000 

43,378,000 
2,  729,  000 
6, 489,  000 
7, 039, 000 

42,  897,  000 
2,  839, 000 
7,117,000 
7,  259, 000 

49,337, 000 
2,  788, 000 

7. 598. 000 

8. 004. 000 

Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Total  United  King- 
dom  

1,756,000 

1,8-14,  000 

1,931,000 

59, 695, 000 

60,112,000 

67,  727, 000 

Total 

937,853,000  i 

1,040,  961,000 

1,214,919,000 

ASIA. 

British  India...  . 

7, 840,  000 
(■) 

(') 

(0 

(') 

(Q 

(0 

2,  229, 000 

0) 

2, 049,  000 

(') 

2, 100, 000 

Cyprus 

Japanese  Empire: 

Japan 

3, 173,  000 

3,  000 

3, 132, 000 

(Q 

3,  296,  000 
(') 

86,  468,  000 
46,  000 

90, 559,  000 
45,  000 

101,073,000 
46,  000 

Formosa 

Total  Japanese  Em- 
pire   

86, 514,  000 

90,604, 000 

101,119,000 

1 No  official  statistics. 

2 Area  in  1907  (Census). 


3 Exclusive  of  winter  barley. 

< Includes  Asiatic  Russia  (io  Governments  of). 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK 


21 


Table  10. — Barley  crop  of  countries  named,  1911-1913 — Continued. 


Couniry. 

Area. 

Production. 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1911 

1912 

1913 

ASIA— continued. 

Russia: 

Central  Asia 

Acres. 

420.000 

451.000 
2, 000 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Bieshcls. 
5,694,000 
4, 300,  OCO 
27, 000 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Siberia 

Transcaucasia 

Total  Russia(  Asiatic)! . 

Total 

873, 000 

(9 

(9 

10,021,000 

12, 263,  OCO 

(9 

98,764,000 

104,916,000 

103, 219,000 

AFRICA. 

Algeria 

Tunis 

3. 320. 000 

1. 193. 000 
(•') 

3. 430. 000 

1.119.000 

(9 

3, 152, 000 

(d 

(9 

47,588,000 

13,319,660 

1,359,000 

32, 887, 000 
3, 070, 000 

4 1,359,000 

50.031.000 
6,400,000 

4 1.359.000 

Union  of  South  Africa 

Total 

62, 266, 000 

37, 310, 000 

57,  790, 000 

AUSTRALASIA. 

Australia: 

Queensland 

6,000 

7.000 

53. 000 

34. 000 

3.000 

5.000 

2,000 

11,000 

53. 000 

41.000 

4.000 

6.000 

9,000 

(9 

(•') 

69,000 

G) 

86, 000 

85.000 
1,383,000 

562.000 

35. 000 

147.000 

16,000 

133.000 
1,057,000 

725. 000 
38,  000 

153. 000 

151,000 
^33,000 
5 1,057,000 
1,360,000 
5 38,000 
5 153,000 

New  South  V/ales 

Victoria 

South  Australia 

W estern  Australia 

Tasmania 

Total  Australia 

108, OCO 

117,000 

2,  298, 000 

2, 122, 000 

2,  892,  OOO 

New  Zealand 

34, 000 

32, 000 

37, 000 

950,000 

1,290,000 

1,420,000 

Total  Australasia 

142,000 

149,000 

3, 248, 000 

3,418,000 

4,312,000 

Grand  total 

1,373, 286,000 

1,  466,313,000 

1,613,  748, 000 

1 Exclusive  of  winter  barley.  ^ Fibres  for  1911  repeated. 

2 Included  in  European  Russia.  « Figures  for  1912  repeated. 

3 No  official  statistics. 


Table  11. — Total  production  of  barley  in  countries  named  in  Table  10,  1895-1913. 


Y'ear. 

Production. 

Year. 

Production. 

Year. 

Production. 

YYar. 

Production. 

1895 

Bushels. 

915.504.000 

932. 100.000 

864.605.000 
1,030,581,000 

965,  720, 000 

1900 

Bushels. 

959, 622, 000 

1.072. 195.000 

1.229.132. 000 

1.235.786.000 

1, 175,  784, 000 

1905 

Bushels. 

1.180. 053.000 

1,  296, 579, 060 

1.271.237.000 

1.274.897.000 

1.458.263.000 

1910 

Bushels. 

1.388. 734.000 

1.373. 286.000 

1.466.313.000 
1, 613,  748, 000 

1896 

1901 

1906  ... 

1911 

1897 

1902 

1907  

1912  . . 

1898 

1903 

1908  ... 

1913  . . 

1899 

1904 

1909 

THE  WORLD  RYE  CROP. 

The  surface  annually  sown  to  rye  in  the  w^orld  amounts  approxi- 
mately to  108  million  acres;  of  this  the  heavy  proportion  of  95  per 
cent,  or  103  million  acres,  is  in  Europe,  the  continent  where  the  plant 
is  believed  to  have  originated.  Native  to  the  territory  between  the 
Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  its  cultivation  has  expanded,  partly  because 
of  an  exceptional  power  of  resistance  to  the  damaging  effects  of  rig- 
orous Vfinters,  over  large  areas  of  central  and  northern  Europe.  In 
Bussia,  Austria,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands  the  grain  is  grown 
over  a broader  extent  of  land  than  any  other  cereal,  and  to  the  great 
mass  of  the  population  of  these  countries  the  ^^black  bread  ’’  made 


22 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  581, 


from  rye  flour  is  the  chief  article  of  food.  Other  States  in  the  rye 
belt  — Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway — though  cultivating  oats 
more  than  any  other  grain,  give  second  place  to  rye.  Rye  cakes, 
especially  in  Sweden,  are  the  great  staple  of  consumption. 

In  the  restriction  of  its  culture  on  an  important  scale  to  a few 
European  nations,  rye  is,  among  the  great  food  grains,  unique.  In 
the  countries  mentioned  above  an  aggregate  of  over  94  million  acres 
are  now  sown  annually,  while  in  all  other  Europe  the  total  area  each 
year  is  less  than  9 million.  The  cultivation  on  other  continents  is 
of  small  comparative  importance.  So  far  as  statistics  show,  less  than 
3 million  acres  are  grown  in  Asia,  none  in  Africa,  excepting  about 
20,000  acres  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa,  only  a few  thousand 
acres  in  South  America  and  Australia,  and  a total  of  less  than  3 
million  acres  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 


Table  12. — Rye  crop  of  countries  named,  1911-1913. 


Country. 


NORTH  AMERICA. 

United  States 

Canada : 

Quebec 

Ontario 

Manitoba 

Saskatchewan 

Alberta 

Other 

Total  Canada 

Mexico 

Total 

EUROPE. 

Austria-Hungary : 

Austria 

Hungary  proper 

Croatia-Slavonia 

B osnia-H  er  zegovina 

Total  Austria-Hun- 
gary  

Belgium 

Bulgaria 

Denmark.... 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Boumania 

Russia: 

Russia  proper 

Poland 

Northern  Cauca^jia 

Total  Russia  (Euro- 
pean)   


Area. 

Production. 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1911 

1912 

1913 

A cres. 

2, 127,000 

A cres. 
2,117,000 

Acres. 

2, 557,000 

Bushels. 

33,119,000 

Bushels. 

35, 664,000 

Bushels. 

41,381,000 

13.000 

97. 000 

5.000 

2.000 

14.000 
(Q 

11,000 

93. 000 

5.000 

3.000 

15.000 

(9 

10,000 

85.000 

5.000 

3.000 

16.000 
(9 

200,000 
1, 728, 000 

104.000 
61,000 

394.000 
5,000 

173.000 
1,711,000 

105.000 
57,000 

377.000 
5,000 

156.000 
1,567,000 

103.000 
68,000 

398.000 
8,000 

131,000 

127,000 

119,000 

2, 492, 000 

2, 428,000 

2,300,000 

(2) 

(2) 

(9 

70, 000 

70,000 

70,000 

35,681,000 

38, 162, 000 

43,751,000 

4.995.000 

2.557.000 
176,000 

30,000 

5.021.000 

2. 660. 000 
188, 000 

41,000 

4.853.000 

2.677.000 
167,000 

(9 

105,269,000 
47, 782,000 
2,541,000 
379,000 

119,620,000 

49,000,000 

1,350,000 

450,000 

109,099,000 
52, 256, 000 
2,553,000 
666,000 

7,  758, 000 

7,910,000 

1-55,971,000 

170,420,000 

164,574,000 

648. 000 

545. 000 

3 682, 000 

(^) 

2, 902, 000 
15, 161,000 

302. 000 

557. 000 

3 37,  000 

326. 000 

(9 

(9 

(9 

(9 

2,969,000 
15, 489, 000 

305. 000 

564.000 

(9 

265.000 

(9 

(9 

(9 

(9 

2, 958, 000 
15, 849,000 

307. 000 

562.000 

(9 

224.000 

24.360.000 

8.992.000 

19. 286. 000 

10. 153. 000 

45. 894. 000 
427,776.000 

5,  297,  000 

16.110.000 
948,  000 

4.989.000 

21.342.000 
10,000,000 

18. 473. 000 

12.344.000 

48.890.000 
456, 600, 000 

5. 285. 000 

16.094. 000 

1.042.000 

3. 583. 000 

21.385.000 
9, 000, 000 

18.736.000 

12.104. 000 

52. 677. 000 
481,169,000 

5. 589. 000 

15. 265.000 
973, 000 

3.711.000 

65,058,000 
5,258,000 
520, 000 

642,173,000 

95,453,000 

4,739,000 

70, 836, 000 

4 72,933,000 

4 74,990,000 

742, 365, 000 

1,011,029,000 

< 1,002,468,000 

1 Less  than  500  acres. 

2 No  official  statistics. 


3 Area  in  1907  (census). 

4 Includes  Asiatic  Russia. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK 


23 


Table  12. — Rye  crop  of  countries  named,  1911-1913 — Continued, 


Country. 

Area. 

Production. 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1911 

1912 

1913 

EUEOPE— continued. 

Servia 

Acres. 

123. 000 
1,987,000 

989. 000 
55,  000 

Acres. 

123,000 

1,944,000 

0) 

62,000 

A cres. 

(*) 

1,917, 000 
(0 

58, 000 

Bushels. 

1.711.000 

28. 897. 000 

23. 825. 000 

1. 750. 000 

Bushels. 

1.748.000 

18. 867. 000 

23.323.000 

1.500.000 

Bushels. 

1.378.000 
27,916,000 
22,000,000 

1.750.000 

Spain 

Sweden 

United  Kingdom 

Total 

1,518, 324,000 

1,820,540,000 

1, 840, 695, 000 

ASIA. 

Russia: 

Central  Asia 

241,000 

2,113,000 

1,000 

587,000 
19, 086, 000 
13,  000 

Siberia 

Transcaucasia 

Total  Russia  (Asiatic) 

AUSTRALASIA. 

Australia: 

Queensland 

2, 355, 000 

(2) 

(9 

19, 686, 000 

32, 953, 000 

(9 

(“) 

(U 

(U 

1,000 

(9 

(9 

2, 000 

59. 000 
34,  000 

8,000 

6,000 

24.000 

2,000 

50. 000 
25,  000 

10. 000 
8,000 

15, 000 

New  South  \ v ales 

4. 000 

3.000 

1.000 
1,000 
1,000 

2, 000 
1,000 
1,000 

26, 000 
10,  000 

7.000 

3.000 
13, 000 

Victoria 

South  Australia 

'Western  Australia 

Tasmania 

2, 000 

Total  Australia 

10,000 

6,000 

133, 000 

59, 000 

110,000 

New  Zealand 

4, 000 

6,000 

(9 

109, 000 

90, 000 

90, 000 

Total  Australasia i 

14, 000 

12, 000 

242, 000 

149,000 

200, 000 

Grand  total j 

1,573,933,000 

1, 891, 804, 000 

1,884,646, 000 

1 No  official  statistics.  s i^ess  than  500  acres. 

2 Included  under  European  Russia.  * No  official  statistics  of  area. 


Table  13. — Total  production  of  rye  in  countries  named  in  Table  12, 1895-1913. 


Year. 

Production. 

Year. 

Production. 

Year. 

Production. 

Year. 

Production. 

1895 

Bushels. 

1. 468. 212. 000 

1.499.250.000 

1.300. 645.000 

1.461.171.000 

1.583.179. 000 

1900... 

Bushels. 

1.557.634.000 

1.416.022.000 

1.647. 845.000 

1.659.961.000 

1.742.112. 000 

1905. 

Bushels. 

1.495.751.000 

1.433.395.000 

1.538. 778.000 

1.590.057.000 

1.747.123.000 

1910. 

Bushels. 

1.673. 473.000 

1.573.933.000 

1.891.804.000 

1.884. 646.000 

1896 

1901.  ... 

1906. 

1911. 

1897 

1902 

1907. 

1912. 

1898 

1903 

1908 

1913 

1899 

1904 

1909...  . 

THE  WORLD  POTATO  CROP. 

Table  14  gives  as  nearly  as  possible  the  area  under  potatoes  through” 
out  the  world  in  1910,  1911,  and  1912,  and  the  world’s  production 
for  the  same  years.  The  areas  and  production  for  1913  are  available 
for  a few  countries,  but  their  total  would  not  be  comparable  to  the 
totals  of  the  preceding  years.  The  most  striking  fact  exhibited  in 
the  table  is  the  immense  preponderance  of  Germany  in  the  produc- 
tion of  this  crop.  Out  of  a total  of  5,945,846,000  bushels,  the 
world’s  crop  of  1912,  Germany  produced  1,844,863,000  bushels,  or 
31  per  cent.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  immense  Kussian  Empire, 
with  8,291,429  square  miles,  produced  only  about  three-fourths  the 
quantity  of  potatoes  that  Germ.any  produced  on  her  208,780  square 


24 


FAKMERS^  BULLETIiiT  581. 


miles,  while  the  United  States,  mth  3,026,789  square  miles,  produced 
not  quite  one-fourth  the  German  crop,  although  the  area  under 
potatoes  in  the  United  States  was  nearly  half  the  potato  area  of 
Germany,  and  the  Kussian  potato  area  exceeded  that  of  Germany 
by  nearly  3,000,000  acres.  The  explanation  is  to  be  found  in  the 
xact  that  only  28  per  cent  of  the  German  potato  crop  is  used  for 
human  consumption,  while  the  rest  is  used  in  the  arts  and  for  stock 
food.  For  the  last-named  purpose  nearly  42  per  cent  is  used,  show- 
ing that  Germany,  with  a very  limited  area  of  pasture  land,  has  to 
depend  largely  on  garnered  produce  to  feed  her  live  stock.  The 
steady  increase  of  the  German  potato  crop,  with  a practically  sta- 
tionary acreage,  shows  the  possibilities  of  intensive  cultivation. 

By  comparing  the  production  of  1911  with  that  of  1912,  for  the 
principal  countries,  it  is  seen  that  the  former  was  a lean  year,  the 
latter  a fat  year,  representing  an  advance  not  only  over  1911  but  in 
most  cases  over  earlier  years,  the  German  production  of  1912  being 
the  highest  on  record.  The  United  Kingdom  is  an  exception,  its 
production  in  1912  having  been  the  lowest  since  1908. 

Table  li.—Acj'eage  and  'production  of  potatoes,  1910-1912. 


Country. 

Area. 

Production. 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1910 

1911 

1912 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

TTnited  States  (contigu- 
ous)   

Acres. 

3, 720,000 

Acres. 

3,619,000 

Acres. 

3,711,000 

Bushels. 

349,032,000 

Bushels. 

292,737,000 

Bushels. 

420,647,000 

Canada: 

Prince  Edward  Island. . 
Nova  Scotia 

31,000 

31.000 

40. 000 

125. 000 

158.000 

26.000 

24.000 

20.000 
11,000 

31,000 

31.000 

41.000 

124. 000 

157.000 

26.000 

30.000 

24.000 

15.000 

33.000 

32.000 

43.000 
116,000 
158,000 

27.000 

31.000 

27.000 

17.000 

4.203.000 

3.582.000 

5.228.000 

15.548.000 

17.295.000 

2.860.000 

2.917.000 

2.340.000 

1.631.000 

5.581.000 

5.641.000 

8.826.000 

15.763.000 

16.043.000 

5.490.000 

5.510.000 

4.606.000 

3.778.000 

6. 741.000 

9.447. 000 

7. 558. 000 

15.945.000 

22.090.000 
6, 182; 000 

6. 552. 000 

5.775.000 

3.995.000 

New  Brunswick 

Quebec 

Ontario 

Manitoba 

Saskatchewan 

Alberta 

British  Columbia 

Total  Canada 

466,000 

479,000 

484, 000 

55,610,000 

71.238,000 

84,885.000 

Mexico 

0) 

(9 

(9 

(9 

924, 000 
1,, 542, 000 

924,009 

1,533,000 

924,000 

1,524,000 

Newfoundland 

Total 

407,108,000 

366, 432, 000 

507,980,000 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Argentina 

127,000 
53, 000 

267,000 

68,000 

(9 

66, 000 

44.564,000 

7,862,000 

18,923,000 

7,440,000 

50,000,000 

9,656,000 

Chile 

Total 

52,426,000 

26,363,000 

59,650,000 

EUROPE. 

Austria-Hungary: 

Austria 

3.069.000 

1.508.000 
193,000 

97,000 

3.108.000 

2.666.000 
190,000 

49, 000 

3,092.000 
2, 059; 000 
240, 000 
62, 000 

491.126.000 

176.974.000 
28,490,000 

5, 048, 000 

426.406.000 

163.067.000 
23,138.000 

2, 329, 000 

460.821.000 

199.017.000 
22,997,000 

3, 472, 000 

Hungary  proper 

Croatia-Slavonia 

Bosnia-Herzegovina 

Total  Austria-Hun- 
gary   

4,867,000 

6,013,000 

6, 053, 000 

701,638,000 

614,940,000 

686, 307, 000 

Belgium 

(9 

7,000 

134,009 

0) 

387.000 
8,000 

134.000 

(9 

(9 

(9 

151,000 

(9 

104,719,000 

432,000 

30.517.000 

17.386.000 

100,934,000 

511,000 

29.523.000 

22.691.000 

100,000,000 
500,000 
28,  889, 000 
23,488,000 

Bulgaria 

Denmark 

Finland 

1 No  official  statistics. 


THE  AGRICULTUHAL  OUTLOOK, 


25 


1\\BLE  14. — Acreage  and  production  of  potatoes,  1910-1912 — Continued. 


('ountry. 

Area. 

Production. 

1910 

1911 

i 1912 

1910 

1911 

1912 

EUROPE— continued. 

. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

France 

3,823,000 

3,853,000 

3,863,000 

313,189, 000 

469, 386, 000 

552,074,000 

Germany 

8,145,000 

8, 207,000 

8, 257, 000 

1,597,174,000 

1,263,024.000 

1,844,863,000 

(Jreece 

0) 

(0 

C) 

331,000 

331,000 

551,000 

Italy 

702,000 

712,000 

712, 000 

56,563,000 

62,141,000 

56,313,000 

Luxemburg 

30,000 

30, 000 

37,000 

5,085,000 

4, 692, 000 

8, 683, 000 

Malta 

4,000 

4,000 

0) 

654,000 

834,000 

2 834,000 

Netherlands 

401,000 

411,000 

426,000 

88,377,000 

103,468,000 

121,878,000 

N orway 

102,000 

102,000 

102, 000 

22,398,000 

22,017,000 

29, 825, 000 

Eoumaiiia; 

Potatoes  alone 

25,000 

30,000 

30,000 

3,847,000 

4,240,000 

3,748,000 

Potatoes  among  corn. . . 

50,000 

61,000 

60, 000 

999,000 

1,429,000 

1,081,000 

Total  Iloumania 

4,846,000 

5,669,000 

4,832, 000 

Russia: 

Russia  proper 

8,059,000 

8,166,000 

C) 

898,152,000 

851,120,000 

925,775,000 

Poland 

2,586,000 

2, 606, 000 

0) 

400,234,000 

278,309,000 

411,281.000 

Northern  Caucasia 

202, 000 

203,000 

0) 

15,637,000 

13,670,000 

19,  768, 000 

Total  Russia  (Euro- 

10, 847,000 

10,975,000 

1,314,023,000 

1.143,099, 000 

1,356,824,000 



Senna 

28, 000 

31,000 

0) 

3,110, 000 

2, 154, 000 

2, 1.54,000 

Spain 

798, 000 

0) 

632, 000 

91,014,000 

92, 000, 000 

93, 089, 000 

Sweden 

377, 000 

378, 000 

G) 

66, 855, 000 

58, 391,000 

65,  765, 000 

Switzerland 

(Q 

G) 

0) 

46,  712, 000 

2 46,712, 000 

2 46,712,000 

United  Kingdom: 

England 

377,000 

403,000 

437,000 

92, 108, 000 

99,858,000 

78,961,000 

Scotland 

137, 000 

143,000 

150, 000 

32,  790, 000 

36, 407,000 

35,041,000 

Wales 

20, 000 

27, 000 

26,000 

4,915,000 

6, 547, 000 

4,704,000 

Ireland 

593, 000 

591, 000 

595,000 

107, 178, 000 

137,941,000 

95, 077, 000 

Total  United  King- 

dom  

1,133,000 

1,164,000 

1, 208, 000 

236, 991,000 

280, 753, 000 

213,  783, 000 

Total 

1 

4,702,014,000 

4,323,270,000 

5,237,364,000 

ASIA.  I 

Japan ! 

108,000 

[ 169, 000 

0) 

24,  718, 000 

25, 168, 000 

60, 210, 000 

Russian  Asiatic 1 

404,000 

1 423,000 

G) 

29, 246, 000 

32, 956, 000 

58, 564, 000 

T otal ! 

1 

53,964,000 

58, 124, 000  1 

118, 774,000 

AFRICA. 

Algeria 

43,000 

45,000 

1,687,000 

1,606,000 

1 , 606, 000 

Union  of  South  Africa: 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

C) 

(G 

G) 

1, 283, 000 

1, 283, 000 

1,283,000 

Natal 

0) 

(G 

(G 

627, 000 

627,000 

627, 000 

TransA^aal. 

(Q 

0) 

(*) 

1,272,000 

1,  272, 000 

1, 272, 000 

Orange  Free  State 

(Q 

0) 

G) 

618, 000 

618, 000 

618, 000 

Total  Union  of  South 

Africa 

' ■ ■ 1 

3,800, 000 

33,800,000 

3.3,800,000 

Total 

1 

5, 487, 000 

5, 406, 000 

5, 406, 000 

AUSTRALASIA. 

Australia: 

Queensland 

8,000 

8,  000 

8,000 

506, 000 

584, 000 

489, 000 

New  South  Wales 

36, 000 

44, 000 

43, 000 

3,  739, 000 

4,519,000 

2, 806,000 

Victoria 

02, 000 

63, 000 

48, 000 

6, 532,000 

6, 097, 000 

4,  446, 000 

South  Australia 

8,000 

8,  000 

' 7, 000 

693,000 

893,000 

846,  000 

Western  Australia 

2, 000 

2,000 

3,000 

222, 000 

219, 000 

348, 000 

Tasmania 

21,000 

26, 000 

22,000 

2, 758,000 

2, 617, 000 

2, 321, 000 

Total  Australia 

137, 000 

151, 000 

131,000 

14,450,000 

14,929, 000 

11,256,000 

Nerv  Zealand 

31,000 

29, 000 

28, 000 

6, 739,000 

5,  283, 000 

5,410, 000 

Total  Australasia 

168, 000 

180, 000 

159, 000 

21,189,000 

20,  212, 000 

16, 666, 000 

Grand  total 

1 

5, 242, 188, 000 

4, 799, 807, 000 

5,945,846,000 

1 No  official  statistics.  2 Data  for  1911.  2 Census  figures  for  1911. 

3278G°— Bull.  581—14 4 


26 


FAEMEKS"'  BULLETIN  581. 


THE  WORLD  FLAX  CROP. 

Previous  to  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin,  the  flax  plant  was  the 
chief  source 'of  raw  material  for  the  textile  industries  and  for  the 
spinning  and  weaving  handicrafts  that  were  an  essential  feature  of 
every  household.  Excepting  in  Europe,  its  culture  for  fiber  during 
the  subsequent  century  practically  ceased,  and  an  extensive  industry — 
confined  almost  exclusively  to  certain  parts  of  the  United  States, 
Canada,  Argentina,  and  British  India — has  been  developed  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  plant  for  its  seed,  the  straw  with  a few  unimportant 
exceptions  being  treated  as  a cumbersome  waste.  The  seed  is 
utilized  almost  entirely  for  the  extraction  of  linseed  oil,  valuable 
because  of  its  exceptional  drying  properties,  in  the  manufacture  of 
paint,  linoleum,  patent  leather,  printer’s  ink,  and  soap;  the  residue, 
linseed  oilcake,  because  of  its  high  nitrogenous  content,  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  of  cattle  feeds. 

Modern  flax  culture  therefore  serves  two  important  purposes;  of 
the  19  million  acres  which  approximately  represent  the  total  area  sown 
in  the  world,  upward  of  5 million  acres  (of  v^hicli  million  acres 
are  in  Kussia)  are  devoted  primarily  to  the  production  of  fiber;  the 
remaining  14  million  acres  are  cultivated  almost  exclusively  for  the 
seed. 

Cultivation  differs  somewhat  according  to  the  purpose  for  which 
the  product  is  designed.  In  fiber  production  the  sowing  of  from  2 
to  3 bushels  of  seed  per  acre,  and  the  careful  pulling  and  handling 
of  the  straw  b}^  hand,  has  for  its  chief  object  long  straight  and  silky 
fiber;  the  yield  of  seed,  partly  because  the  plant  is  usually  cut  a little 
before  maturity,  is  generally  small.  The  seed,  however,  constitutes 
a product  of  valuable  secondary  importance,  especially  in  Russia, 
where  the  enormous  acreage,  even  with  a small  yield  per  acre,  gives 
the  country  rank  as  one  of  the  largest  producers.  In  other  fiber- 
producing  countries  the  saving  of  the  seed  is  of  minor  importance 
and  in  Ii  eiaiid  it  is  neglected  altogether. 

In  the  culture  of  flax  for  seed,  on  the  other  hand,  the  common  cus- 
tom is  to  sow  only  from  2 to  3 pecks  per  acre.  The  result  is  a short 
straw  and  a coarse  fiber,  and  the  effect  of  the  subsequent  thrashing 
of  the  seed  by  machinery  is  to  destroy  whatever  value  the  straw  may 
have  had  for  textile  purposes.  In  no  country  where  flax  is  grown 
exclusively  for  the  seed  does  the  straw  to  any  great  extent  serve 
manufacturing  uses;  probably  the  most  successful  example  is  the 
manufacture  in  a small  way  of  binder  tvdne,  though  many  efforts 
have  been  made  to  use  it  for  paper  stock  and  some  other  purposes. 
In  this  connection  it  may  be  of  interest  to  note  that,  after  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War,  when  flax  growing  for  seed  in  the  United  States  was 
largely  concentrated  in  southern  Ohio,  quite  an  extensive  industry 
sprang  up  there  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  bagging  from  the 


THE  AGPJCULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


27 


coarse  fiber  obtained  from  the  straw,  an  otherwise  valueless  product. 
The  removal  of  the  customs  duty  on  the  competing  product,  jute, 
together  with  other  causes,  soon  aimihilated  the  industry.  Flaxseed 
cultivation  in  its  migratory  movement  northwestward  to  its  present 
center  in  the  Dakotas  and  western  Canada  has  since  increased  in 
mammoth  proportions,  but  the  industry  of  utilizing  the  fiber  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  bagging  has  never  been  resumed. 

Of  the  four  countries  which  produce  flax  for  the  seed  alone,  i^rgen- 
tina  in  the  winter  of  1913-14  produced,  according  to  the  preliminary 
estimate  of  the  Argentine  Department  of  Agriculture,  38,974,000 
bushels  from  2,614,000  acres.  Canada’s  crop  in  the  fall  of  1913  was 
17,539,000  bushels  from  1,552,800  acres;  the  1913  crop  of  the  United 
States  was  17,583,000  bushels  from  2,291,000  acres,  and  that  har- 
vested in  British  India  in  the  spring  of  1913  was  21,428,000  bushels. 
The  total  1913  product  of  the  four  countries  which,  excepting  the 
crop  of  Russia,  constitutes  the  commercial  crop  of  the  world,  was 
almost  96  million  bushels,  as  compared  with  102  million  bushels  in  the 
previous  year.  Table  15  is  a detailed  statement  of  the  area  and  pro- 
duction of  flaxseed  and  flax  fiber  for  the  years  1912,  1911,  and  1910 
for  all  countries  for  which  figures  are  available. 


Table  15. — Flax  crop  of  couidries  named ^ 1910-1912. 


28 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


THE  AGEICULTURAL  OUTLOOK, 


29 


CO  o 

Tf*  ^ vT) 

GO  O 


^ O 05 


o o o 
o o o 
o o o 

(>ro  (>r 


o o 

88 


o o o 

8_^S8 

o"'  iri 
CQ  X 05 
(N 


> o o 

?S8 


o o o 
o o o 
coo 


o o o 
coo 
o o o 


o o o 
coo 

oT 


o o o 
o o o 
o o o 


ft 


D"©  o 


J'§  ^ 


OJ  ^ 
CQCOt 


S-c  ^ 

•S  §ft  s 

g^ocCiE-i 

3 


.s  ^ 


30 


FAEMERS'  BULLETIN  581. 


Table  16, — Total  production  of  fax  (seed  and  fiber)  in  countries  named  in  Table  15, 

1S96-1912. 


Year. 

Production. 

Year. 

Production. 

Seed.  • 

Fiber. 

Seed. 

Fiber. 

1896 

Bushels. 

82.684.000 

57. 596.000 

72.938.000 

66.347.000 

62.131.000 

72.314.000 

83. 891.000 

110.455. 000 

107. 743. 000 

Pounds. 

1.714.205. 000 

1.498.054.000  I 

1.780.693.000 

1.138.763.000  1 

1.315.931.000 

1.050.260.000 

1.564.840.000 

1.492.383.000 

1.517.922. 000 

1905 

Bushels. 

100. 458. 000 

88. 165. 000 

102. 960. 000 

100. 850. 000 
1(X),  820, 000 

85. 053.000 

101.118.000 
126, 260,000 

Pounds. 

1.494.229.000 

1.871.723.000 

2. 042. 390. 000 
1, 907,  .591, 000 

1.384.524.000 
891,112,000 

1.284.607.000 

1897 

1906 

1898 

1907  

1899 

1908 

1900 

1909.  

1901 

1910 

1902 

1911 

1903 

1912 

1904 

ARGENTINE  BEEF. 

By  George  K.  Holmes. 

MOST  PROMINENT  NEW  SUPPLY. 

Chilled  and  frozen  beef  is  coming  from  Argentina  at  a rate  of 
9,000,000  pounds  monthly,  and  the  importations  are  exciting  con- 
jectures concerning  their  importance  in  the  supply  of  dressed  beef 
for  consumption  in  the  United  States.  In  October  last  this  country 
received  from  Argentina  2,069,794  pounds  of  chiUed  and  frozen  beef; 
in  November,  3,988,898  pounds;  in  December,  9,440,488  pounds; 
in  January,  8,935,797  pounds;  or,  in  the  four  months,  a total  of 
24,434,977  pounds. 

Argentina,  however,  contributed  58  per  cent  to  the  total  imports 
of  chilled  and  frozen  beef  during  the  four  months,  the  remainder 
coming  from  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Uruguay,  Canada,  and  Mexico. 
Argentina  is  far  in  the  lead  as  a source  of  imports  of  dressed  beef  into 
this  country,  and  has  future  possibilities  of  enormous  increase,  and 
therefore  an  examination  of  the  factors  of  the  situation  is  timely. 

RISE  OF  THE  ARGENTINE  EXPORT  TRADE. 

Many  years  ago  Argentina  established  an  export  trade  in  salted 
beef,  at  a time  before  fresh  beef  was  preserved  b}^  freezing  or  chilling, 
and  years  ago  also  live  cattle  were  exported,  chiefly  to  England.  In 
the  course  of  time  Argentine  cattle  became  infected  with  the  foot  and 
mouth  disease,  and  the  British  Government,  to  protect  home  cattle, 
prohibited  the  importation  of  live  cattle  from  Argentina. 

Argentina,  however,  had  become  too  important  a source  of  fresh 
beef  to  the  United  Kingdom  to  be  lost,  and  consequently  British 
and  other  companies  established  slaughtering  and  freezing  works  in 
Argentina  and  exported  the  frozen  beef,  mostly  to  England. 

A revolutionary  element  v/as  introduced  into  the  Argentine  ex- 
portation of  frozen  beef  by  the  diminishing  per  capita  supply  of  beef 
in  the  United  States,  which  rapidly  led  to  the  extinction  of  the  ex- 
port trade  of  this  country  in  refrigerated  beef.  This  beef  had  mostly 


THE  AGEICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


31 


gone  to  the  United  Kingdom.  Four  of  the  great  slaughtering  com- 
panies of  Chicago  and  other  cities  bought  or  built  slaughtering  and 
chilling  or  freezing  establishments  in  Argentina  and  speedily  domi- 
nated the  business  of  slaughtering  beef  animals  there  for  export. 

In  1911  the  seven  freezing  companies  then  operating  in  Argen- 
tina made  a combine  limiting  in  a certain  degree  the  exportation 
of  chilled  and  frozen  beef.  In  April,  1913,  one  of  these  companies, 
which  in  the  meantime  had  passed  into  the  control  of  a Chicago  com- 
pany, expressed  a desire  to  increase  its  shipments  because  of  the  in- 
creased capacity  of  its  works,  but  this  proposition  was  not  agreed  to 
by  the  other  companies  and  the  agreement  of  1911  was  not  renewed. 
Of  the  seven  companies,  two  were  Argentine,  three  English,  and  tv/o, 
although  registered  as  Argentine  companies,  belonged  to  Chicago 
companies. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  nine  establishments  for  slaughtering, 
chilling  or  freezing,  and  exporting  beef,  located  in  or  near  Buenos 
Aires,  and  five  of  these  companies  are  owned  or  operated  by  Chicago 
slaughtering  and  packing  houses.  These  five  do  by  far  the  major 
portion  of  the  entire  business. 

NUMBER  OF  CATTLE  IN  ARGENTINA. 

In  a census  taken  in  Argentina  in  1888  it  was  ascertained  that  there 
were  21,961,657  cattle  in  that  country,  and  that  of  these  cattle 
17,574,572  were  natives,  3,388,801  were  grades,  and  only  37,858  were 
purebreds  and  crossbreds.  Not  included  in  the  foregoing  classes  were 
960,426  milch  cows  and  work  oxen. 

By  the  time  of  the  national  census  of  1895  the  number  of  cattle  in 
Ai’gentina  had  slightly  declined,  and  the  total  was  21,701,526.  The 
native  cattle  had  absolutely  and  relatively  declined  very  considerably 
and  the  grades  and  purebreds  had  increased  correspondingly. 

In  1908  there  was  a live-stock  census  which  ascertained  that  the 
number  of  cattle  in  Argentma  was  29,116,625;  this  number  was 
larger  than  for  any  year  either  subsequently  or  before.  The  improve- 
ment in  the  beef  qualities  of  the  cattle  continued,  and  the  census 
found  10,785,280  natives,  or  only  about  one-third  of  the  total  number 
of  the  cattle;  it  found  14,027,207  grades,  or  nearly  one-half  of  the 
total  number  of  cattle;  and  it  found  also  918,749  pure  breds  and 
crossbreds. 

The  improvement  of  Argentine  beef  cattle  has  been  speedily  and 
intelligently  performed.  Argentine  cattle  owners  have  been  the 
readiest  and  best  buyers  of  the  British  pure-bred  beef  cattle,  and 
have  bought  them  in  large  numbers.  So  rapidly  have  the  Argentine 
cattle  herds  been  improved  in  beef  qualities  in  recent  3^ears  that  the}'* 
are  now  producing  export  beef  that  is  not  excelled  by  that  of  an}' 
other  country  at  present  exporting  in  large  quantities. 


32 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


In  consequence  of  drought,  the  estimated  number  of  cattle  in 
Argentina,  December  31,  1909,  was  27,824,509,  a reduction  of 
1,300,000  cattle  from  the  number  of  1908.  There  was  some  recovery 
in  1910,  for  which  year  the  estimate  was  28,827,900,  and  the  cattle 
hardly  maintained  their  numbers  in  1911,  for  which  year  the  esti- 
mate was  28,786,168.  The  last  estimate  received  in  this  country  is 
that  of  December  31,  1912,  which  gave  to  Argentina  29,016,000 
cattle,  a number  slightly  under  that  of  the  census  of  May  30,  1908. 
The  figures  may  be  found  in  Table  1 7,  and  an  analysis  of  the  cattle 
of  1908,  as  determined  by  the  census,  with  distinction  of  breed,  sex, 
and  age,  by  groups,  may  be  found  in  Table  18. 


Table  17. — Numher  of  caille  in  Argentina,  1888-1912. 


Classes. 

1888. 

(Census. )i 

1895. 
(Census, 
May  10.  )2 

1908. 
(Census, 
May  30.  )3 

1909. 

(Estimate, 
Dec.  31. )‘ 

1910. 

(Estimate, 
Dec.  31. 

1911. 

(Estimate, 
Dec.  31. )a 

1912. 

(Estimate, 
Dec.  31. )6 

Cattle; 

Natives 

17,  574,. 572 
3, 388, 801 

37, 858 

1 960,426 

14,197,159 
4, 678, 348 

72, 216 
/1, 800,  799 
\ 953,004 

10, 785, 280 
14, 027, 207 

918,  749 
2, 163, 900 
1,221,489 

i 

Grades 

1 

1 

Purebreds  and  cross- 
breds   

i 

!Milcli  cows 

Work  oxen 

1 

Total j 

I 

! 

21,961,657  j21,701,526 

29, 116,  625 

27,824,509 

j28,827,900 

28, 786, 168 

29,016,000 

1 The  Animal  Industry  of  Argentina,  by  Frank  W.  Bicknell,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Bui.  48,  p.  57. 

2 Segundo  Censo  de  la  Republica  Argentina,  1S95,  vol.  3,  pp.  200,  204. 

s Agricultural  and  Pastoral  Census  of  the  Nation,  1908.  Stock-breeding,  vol.  I,  pp.  202,  310. 

4 La  Argentina  Agricola,  1911-1912,  p.  105. 

& Bolotin  Mensuel  de  Estadistica  Agricola,  December,  1912,  p.  14. 

6 Boletin  Mensuel  de  Estadistica  Agricola,  May,  1913,  p.  G. 


Table  J8. — Numher  of  cattle  in  Argentina  distinguished  by  breed,  sex,  and  age  groups, 

census  of  May  30,  1908. 


Classes. 

Total. 

Calves, 

male. 

Calves, 

female. 

BuUs. 

Steers. 

Cows  for 
breeding. 

Milch 

cows. 

Work 

oxen. 

Natives 

13,071,282 
15, 060,  446 
112,786 
872, 111 

1,668,165 
2, 009, 691 
13,241 
120,346 

1,510,930 
1, 881,339 
12, 434 
106,  709 

517,562 
276,052 
15,  424 
77,412 

1,533,655 
3, 027,143 
15, 189 
111,040 

5, 554, 968 
6,  832, 982 
50, 132 
387, 822 

1,2.36,621 
866, 579 
5,504 
55, 196 

1,049, 381 
166, 660 
862 
4,586 

Grades 

Purebreds 

Crosshrefls . 

Total 1 

29,116, 625 

3, 820, 443 

3,511,412 

886, 450 

4,687,027 

12,825,904 

2,163,900 

1, 221, 489 

CONDITION  OF  THE  CATTLE-PRODUCING  INDUSTRY. 

The  conditions  under  which  beef  cattle  are  kept  and  the  essential 
facts  relating  to  the  beef-animal  producing  industry  have  been  under 
obs(‘rvation  by  three  noted  experts  of  this  country,  one  of  them  as 
special  agent  of  the  Tariff  Board  in  1911.  The  Argentine  beef,  both 
for  home  consumption  and  for  export,  is  not  corn  fed.  Part  of  it  is 
the  ])roduct  of  native  pastures,  but  the  best  of  it  is  fed  on  alfalfa. 
In  the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires,  reports  the  special  agent  of  the 
Tariff  Board,  “the  land  is  worth  too  much  money  on  the  market  to 
be  profitable  with  cattle  or  sheep  grazing.  The  summer  droughts 


THE  AGIHCULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


33 


make  it  hard  to  grow  cultivated  grasses.  Alfalfa  is  a success  in 
every  })art  of  the  country.”  “Agriculture  is  coming  in  rapidly  and 
lands  are  constantly  being  subdivided  into  farms.  Never,  so  far  as 
was  noted,  do  the  farmers  keep  live  stock  on  their  farms  more  than 
the  animals  needed  for  work,  or  perhaps  some  cows  for  dairy  use,  or 
a few  sheep  bought  for  food  to  be  killed  off  one  at  a time  as  needed.” 
One-third  of  the  cattle  of  the  Republic  are  in  this  Province. 

Ranchmen  very  often  lease  lands  to  the  farmers  or  colonists, 
usually  for  wheat  growing.  This  withdraws  the  land  from  stock 
growing  for  three  to  five  years,  when  it  is  sown  to  alfalfa  and  returned 
to  stock  again,  while  the  colonist  moves  on  to  develop  another  piece 
of  land  from  wildness  to  wheat  and  to  leave  it  later  in  turn  to  alfalfa. 

The  Province  of  Entre  Rios,”  says  the  special  agent,  “is  fully  occu- 
pied and  fully  stocked  with  sheep  and  cattle.  It  is  a land  where  peren- 
nial grasses  are  not  much  seen,  and  those  found  are  of  hard,  coarse 
kinds,  of  little  use.  The  nutritious  grasses  are  mostly  annuals,  and 
annual  clovers  abound.  The  Province  is  going  rapidly  to  agriculture.” 

Concerning  the  Province  of  Corrientes,  the  special  agent  writes 
that  “it  is  a great  cattle  country,  but  many  of  the  herds  are  of  the 
unimproved  native  stocks,  with  wide  horns  and  huge  bony  frames. 
They  go  to  the  salting  works  at  about  five  or  six  years  of  age.  Good 
cattle  thrive  in  southern  Corrientes  and  some  day  doubtless  will  over 
all  of  the  Province.” 

“There  is  no  probability  of  much  immediate  development  of  the 
live-stock  industry”  in  the  Province  of  Chaco.  In  the  Province  of 
Santa  Fe  “the  number  of  cattle,  now  2,639,480,  will  increase,  no 
doubt,  ov/ing  to  the  laying  down  of  lands  to  alfalfa.”  “In  Pampa 
Central  the  5,000,000  sheep  are  decreasing,  due  to  the  coming  in  of 
agriculture.  Cattle,  on  the  other  hand,  are  likely  to  increase,  as  it 
is  a great  alfalfa-growing  region.” 

In  summing  up  the  results  of  his  observations  in  Argentina,  the 
special  agent  of  the  Tariff  Board  states  that  in  his  opinion  “there 
is  no  doubt  that  sheep  breeding  in  Argentina  has  passed  its  meridian 
and  is  now  on  the  decline.  This  is  because  of  the  large  immigra- 
tion to  Argentina  and  the  continually  laying  down  of  lands  to 
agriculture.”  “Contrasting  cattle  breeding  with  sheep  breeding,  the 
production  of  good  cattle  on  alfalfa  will  no  doubt  increase  in  Argen- 
tina as  time  goes  on,  especially  if  prices  for  beef  remain  good.  It 
is  probably  the  most  marvelous  place  for  cattle  breeding  in  the 
world.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  regions  where  alfalfa  is  grown. 
In  Argentina  cattle  seem  to  bloat  very  little  on  alfalfa  pasture. 
They  run  in  thousands  on  the  alfalfa  pastures,  which  are  perennial, 
and  in  winter  eat  alfalfa  hay  from  ricks  piled  up  for  them,  without 
men  taking  the  trouble,  as  a rule,  to  take  it  out  for  them.” 


34 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


It  is  important  to  remember,  however,  that  the  great  defect  in 
Argentina  is  the  weather,  which  is  most  uncertain,  llains  may 
come  at  any  time  of  the  year  or  they  may  not  come  at  all.  Some- 
times a region  will  be  without  much,  if  any,  rain  for  one,  two,  or 
three  years.  The  rainfall  in  normal  years  is  just  sufficient  for  the 
grasses  and  crops.  In  exceedingly  rare  seasons  it  is  excessive.  Per- 
haps in  half  the  years  it  is  too  light.  One  year  in  seven,  more  or  less, 
it  is  withheld.  In  1830  nearly  all  the  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  of 
Argentina  perished  for  want  of  water,  ^ffiut  no  doubt  the  losses 
were  much  more  severe  than  they  could  be  to-day,  for  wells  and 
windmills  abound  on  every  hand.’’ 

SLAUGHTER  OF  COWS.  STEERS,  AND  CALVES. 

Estimates  of  the  slaughter  of  cows,  steers,  and  calves  in  Argentina 
have  been  compiled  from  trustworthy  sources,  with  results  that  may 
be  found  in  Table  19.  There  are  three  classes  of  slaughtering  estab- 
lishments, namely,  the  chilhng  and  freezing  estabhshments  of  the 
exporters,  the  salting  establishments,  and  the  public  slaughter- 
houses, which  slaughter  for  domestic  consumption.  Although  the 
total  number  of  cattle  in  the  Kepublic  declined  after  1908,  and  had 
not  recovered  the  decrease  by  the  end  of  1912,  it  will  be  observed  in 
this  table  that  the  cows  slaughtered  in  the  public  slaughterhouses 
increased  from  382,114  in  1908  to  948,088  in  1912;  that  the  slaughtered 
steers  increased  from  445,487  in  1908  to  605,296  in  1912;  and  that 
the  slaughtered  calves  increased  from  194,774  in  1908  to  316,878  in 
1911,  the  number  for  1912  not  being  obtainable. 

In  the  salting  estabhshments  also  the  slaughter  of  cows  and  steers 
increased  in  large  degree  from  1908  to  1912.  There  is  Httle  or  no 
calf  slaughtering  in  these  establishments.  As  might  be  expected, 
the  increase  of  slaughter  in  the  chilling  and  freezing  estabhshments 
has  been  enormous.  For  cows,  the  increase  was  from  16,452  in 
1908  to  122,929  in  1912;  for  steers,  the  increase  was  from  709,498 
in  1908  to  1,245,091  in  1912;  and  for  calves,  the  increase  was  from 
7,835  in  1908  to  18,626  in  1912. 

Upon  consohdating  the  slaughter  of  the  three  classes  of  estabhsh- 
ments it  appears  that  the  slaughtered  cows  increased  from  426,321 
in  1908  to  1,155,985  in  1912,  or  171  per  cent;  the  slaughtered  steers 
increased  from  1,375,406  in  1908  to  2,225,497  in  1912,  or  62  per 
cent;  and  the  slaughtered  calves  increased  from  202,609  in  1908  to 
340,158  in  1911,  or  68  per  cent. 

To  show  how  the  increased  slaughter  has  counted  against  the 
restoration  of  the  number  of  cattle  of  1908,  the  percentage  of  increase 
of  slaughter  in  the  two  years  1911  and  1912  over  that  of  the  two 
years  1909  and  1910,  when  the  number  of  cattle  was  considerably 
diminished  below  the  number  of  1908  on  account  of  drought,  has 
been  computed.  The  slaughter  of  cows  increased  79  per  cent,  of 
steers  36  per  cent,  and  of  calves  (to  1911  only)  29  per  cent. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


35 


Very  evidently,  future  increase  in  the  supply  of  beef  from  Argen- 
tina must  depend  on  a slaughter  that  is  below  the  natural  increase 
of  the  herds.  The  report  of  the  slaughter  for  1913  has  not  been 
received,  but  it  is  a matter  of  general  knowledge  in  Argentina  that 
cow  slaughter  was  overdone  during  the  year;  and,  if  so,  this  over- 
slaughter of  breeding  stock  has  postponed  to  that  extent  an  increase 
of  beef  production  out  of  the  natural  increase  ot  the  herds. 

Table  19. — Number  of  cattle  slaughtered  in  Argentina  in  chilling  and  freezing,  salting, 
and  public  slaughterhouses,  1904-1912. 

[1904-1911  from  La  Argentina  Agricola,  1911-1912;  1912  from  Memoria  presentada  al  Congreso  de  la 
Nacidn  por  el  Ministro  de  Agricnltnra,  Dr.  Adolf  Mugica,  1912.] 


Year. 

Total. 

Chilling  and  freezing  establishments. 

Cows. 

Steers. 

Calves. 

Cows. 

Steers. 

Calves. 

1904 

359, 367 
283, 437 
305,279 
0) 

426,321 
564, 023 
799,  680 
1, 278, 328 
1, 155, 985 

988, 811 
1,290,767 
1,280,309 
(1) 

1, 375, 406 
1,  487, 507 
1,584,495 
1,952,053 
2, 225,  497 

108, 454 
106, 697 
119,960 
(') 

202, 609 
224,  622 
301,  095 
340, 158 
(2) 

1,476 

2,527 

954 

0) 

16, 452 
39, 935 
108, 338 
150, 245 
122, 929 

306, 352 
517,036 
563,517 
6) 

709, 498 
758, 782 
852, 150 
1, 094, 906 
1, 245, 091 

1905  

1906  

1907 

(U 

7,835 
9,989 
12,917 
23, 280 
18, 626 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

Year. 

Salting  establishments. 

Public  slaughterhouses. 

Cows. 

Steers. 

Calves. 

Cows. 

Steers. 

Calves. 

1904 

22, 781 
28, 329 
39,975 

(U 

27,755 
53,515 
114,381 
86;  871 
84, 968 

212, 959 
304, 930 
245, 103 
6) 

220, 421 
287, 981 
318, 757 
300, 741 
315,  no 

335,  no 
252,581 
264,350 
382, 414 
382, 114 
470, 573 
576,961 
1,041,212 
948, 088 

469,500 
468, 801 
471,689 
452, 780 
445,  487 
440, 744 
413,588 
556, 406 
665, 296 

108, 454 
106, 697 
119, 960 
151, 955 
194, 774 
214, 633 
286, 060 
316,878 
(1) 

1905 

1906 

1907 

b) 

1908 

1909 

1910 

2,118 

1911 

1912 

1 Number  omitted  from  sources  of  information.  2 Data  incomplete. 


EXPORTS  OF  MEAT  ANIMALS  AND  PACKING-HOUSE  PRODUCTS. 

A full  statement  of  the  exports  of  meat  animals  and  packing-house 
products  from  Argentina  has  been  compiled  for  each  year  from  1895 
to  1912,  with  results  that  may  be  found  in  Table  20.  The  exports 
of  chilled  beef  did  not  begin  until  1908,  when  13,783,159  pounds  were 
exported.  The  amount  increased  to  55,624,263  pounds  in  1912, 
and  to  a much  higher  quantity  in  1913.  Argentine  chilled  beef  is 
rapidly  displacing  Argentine  frozen  beef  in  the  British  market,  a 
change  promoted  by  the  Chicago  interests  that  have  become  pre- 
dominant in  the  Argentine  chilling  and  freezing  establishments. 

The  frozen  beef  exported  from  Argentina  in  1895  weighed  3,498,870 
pounds,  in  1908  it  weighed  384,841,590  pounds,  and  in  1912  it 
weighed  700,225,052  pounds. 

The  exports  of  chilled  and  frozen  beef  increased  90  per  cent  from 
1908  to  1912. 


36 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


The  exported  live  cattle  numbered  408,126  in  1895,  and  lias  not 
since  been  equaled  in  any  one  year.  The  number  fell  to  as  low  a 
figure  as  60,916  in  1908,  and  the  largest  number  since  1905  was 
reached  in  1912,  when  it  was  261,416.  Prohibition  of  imports  into 
the  United  Kingdom,  on  account  of  foot-and-mouth  disease  in 
Argentina,  account  for  the  great  decline  in  exports  of  cattle. 

The  jerked-beef  trade  was  at  one  time  very  large  and  the  cx]:)orts 
amounted  to  121,450,000  pounds  in  1895.  In  1912  the  exports  of 
this  beef  had  dwindled  to  19,453,390  pounds. 

The  frozen-mutton  trade  reached  its  height  in  1904,  when 
195,365,000  pounds  were  exported.  Fluctuations  mark  the  exports 
of  subsequent  years,  and  in  1912  the  exports  were  154,707,805  pounds. 

Argentina’s  exports  of  live  meat  animals  and  of  packing-house 
products  may  be  consolidated  into  a total  if  expressed  in  value. 
For  1895  the  combined  values  amounted  to  $18,746,218;  in  1908  the 
amount  was  $37,912,228;  and  in  1912  it  was  $67,252,319. 

A study  of  Table  20  discovers  that  foreign  inducements  to  increase 
the  exports  of  chilled  and  frozen  beef  have  met  with  large  responses 
from  Argentina,  so  large  indeed  in  the  most  recent  years  that  this  trade 
is  retarding  the  natural  increase  of  herds,  if  not  almost  preventing  it. 
The  cause  of  retardation  next  back  of  this  is  the  cessation  of  the 
exports  of  chilled  beef  from  the  United  States,  Vvdiich  has  thrown 
upon  Argentma  the  principal  portion  of  the  task  of  continuing  the 
export  supply  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  other  countries. 

The  imports  of  dressed  beef  from  Argentina  into  the  United 
Kingdom  are  increasing,  yet  they  were  a diminishing  fraction  of  the 
total  during  the  past  three  years.  They  were  83  per  cent  of  the 
total  in  1911,  82  per  cent  in  1912,  and  78  per  cent  in  1913. 


Table  20. — Exports  of  meat  animals  and  paching-house  products  from  Argentina,  1895- 

1912. 


Total 
value,  all 
articles 
named. 

Live  meat  anim-als. 

Year. 

Total 

value. 

j 

Cattle. 

Sheep.  1 

1 

j Swine. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

Number. 

Dollars. 

Number. 

Dollars. 

Number. 

Dollars. 

lS9o 

18, 746,218 

8, 064,  703 

408, 126 

6,  758, 117 

429, 949 

1, 247, 103 

5, 572 

59, 483 

189(5 

17, 280,712 

7, 800, 538 

382, 539 

6,314,526 

512, 061 

1, 482,  403 

374 

3, 609 

1897 

14, 534, 644 

6,  310, 204 

238, 121 

4, 842, 584 

504,  255 

1,  460,  047 

666 

7, 573 

1898 

18,  019,144 

9, 103, 268 

359,  296 

7, 421, 284 

577,  899 

1,673,487 

587 

8, 497 

1899 

16, 301,677 

8, 185,  623 

312, 150 

6,  585,170 

543, 462 

1, 573,  964 

1,830 

26,  489 

1900 

16,  702, 051 

4, 123, 855 

150, 550 

3, 549, 415 

198, 102 

573, 861 

40 

579 

1901 

19, 205,  726 

1,990,197 

119, 189 

1,911,059 

25,  749 

75, 519 

250 

3,619 

1902 

26,412,782 

3,112,473 

118, 303 

2,  748,  749 

122,  503 

355,  763 

532 

7, 961 

1903 

26,  759, 552 

4,  768,  520 

181,860 

4, 282,  no 

167,  747 

485,  628 

54 

782 

1904 

26,  051,  906 

2,836,269 

129, 275 

2,  752,  971 

28, 128 

82,  241 

73 

1,057 

190.5 

38,  613,  362 

5,  332,  703 

262, 681 

4,  979,  866 

120, 166 

351,462 

95 

1,375 

190(5 

29,  988,  482 

1,922,510 

71,106 

1, 617, 480 

102,  916 

304, 321 

49 

709 

1907 

32,  485, 349 

2,310,413 

74, 841 

1,  990,  206 

no,  567 

320,  091 

4 

116 

1908 

37,  912,  228 

2,112,362 

60,  916 

1,811, 131 

103,  792 

300,  478 

26 

753 

1909  

1910  

53, 220,  701 
65,  913,  927 

4, 202, 302 
4, 137,  910 
8, 236, 160 

132,  450 
89,  733 

3,  944,  746 
3,  914,  474 
7,  915,  654 

88,  636 
77, 180 

256,  601 
223,  436 
320,  448 

33 

955 

1911 

184, 112 

110,690 

2 

58 

1912 

67, 252, 319 

9,124,118 

261,  416 

8,820,177 

104,  898 

303, 680 

9 

261 

Including  some  goats. 


THE  AGEICULTUEAL  OUTLOOK, 


37 


Table  20. — Exports  of  meat  animals  and  pacl'ing-house  products  from  Argentina,  1895- 

1912 — Continued. 


Packing-house  products. 


Year. 


1895 . . 

1896.. 

1897.  . 

1898.  . 

1899.  . 

1900. . 

1901 . . 

1902.  . 

1903.  . 

1904.  . 

1905. . 

1906.. 

1907.  . 

1908.  . 

1900. . 
1910.  . 

1911. . 

1012. . 


Total. 


Dollars. 
10,681,515 
9, 480,174 
8, 224, 440 
8,915,876 
8,176,054 
12,578,196 
17,215,529 
23,300,309 
21,991,032 
23, 215,637 
33, 280, 659 
2,8,065,972 
30,174,936 
35,799,866 

41.338. 767 
49, 082,  791 

57.677.767 
58, 128, 201 


Beef,  frozen. 


Beef,  chilled. 


Beef,  jerked. 


Povnds. 

3, 498, 870 
6, 606, 278 
9, 350, 000 

12.935.000 

20.016.000 

54.212.000 

98.996.000 

154.363.000 

179. 721.000 

215.489.000 
336,988,542 
339,087,321 
304,724,221 
384,841,590 
461, 720, 401 
540, 715,628 
6,56,393,195 

00,225,052 


Dollars. 

61,260 
115,668, 
163,  706' 
226, 467 
350, 431 
2, 372, 894 
4,333,281 
6,  756,  769 
7,866  ‘ ‘ 
9,  432, 252 
14,  750, 694 
14,842,566 
13, 338, 386 
16,845,293 
20,210,525 
23,668,248 
28,  731,709 
30,650, 28 


j Pounds. 

Dollars. 

1 



1 

1 

1 

1 

13,  783, 159 
2, 694,021 
IS,  609, 029 
33,280,642 
55,624,263 

603, 300 
117, 921 
811,588 
1,456, 768 
2,434,812 

Pounds. 

121.450.000 

101.208.000 

79.891.000 

49. 035.000 

42. 249. 000 

36.264.000 

53.563.000 

49.172. 000 

28.640. 000 

25.851.000 
55,749,925 

10.251.390 
23, 476, 785 
14,661,681 
25,622,886 
20, 816, 823 
26, 720,519 

19.453.390 


Dollars. 
4,077,529 
3,104,927 
2, 379, 992 
2, 042, 392 
1,967,069 
1,910,272 
2, 778.674 
2,554,789 
1,488,047 
1,343,213 
3,607,598 
575, 760 
1, 136, 824 
745,770 
1,278,676 
996,864 
1,603, 458 
1,351,722 


Blood,  dried. 


Pounds. 

3.086.000 

2. 701 . 000 

2.370.000 

1.806.000 
933,000 
797,451 

2, 209, 935 

2. 039. 000 

3.027.000 

2.557.000 
6,981,968 
7, 140, 699 
7, 200, 224 
9,689,217 
9, 444,506 

10.831,200 
14',  175,578 
13,333,421 


Dollars. 
67,541 
59, 115 
51,859 
39,520 
20, 427 
17, 453 
48, 366 
44, 652 
66, 243 
55,953 
152,  799 
156, 285 
157,565 
212,055 
206,699 
237,069 
310, 248 
291, 834 


Packing-house  products— Continued. 


Year. 


1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

1906. 

1907. 

1908. 

1909. 

1910. 

1911. 

1912. 


Bones. 


Tons. 
43,565 
20,093 
40,201 
34, 943 
20, 658 
25,030 
27,068 
34, 505 
31,002 
25,036! 
'60,185,5801 
51,814,  7141 
'54, 643, 216’ 
j57, 537,855' 
57,811,226 
i65,011,449 
90,020,432 
159, 678, 5221 


Dollars. 
477, 875 
183,976 
399, 239 
445,078 
257,385 
337,068 
306, 593 
329,  771 
284,  438 
243, 418 
964, 890 
826, 200 
1,070,608 
1,356,869 
1,293,331 
1,397,946 
2, 364,213 
914,275 


Cracklings,  j 

Hoofs. 

Horns. 

Intestines,  salted 
and  dried. 

Pounds. 

Dollars} 

Pounds. 

Dollars. 

Tons. 

Dollars. 

Pounds. 

Dollars. 

1,524,963 

30,038 

1,336,151 

8, 773 

2,514 

123, 236 

991,028 

21,120 

1,533,491 

30,205; 

1, 154, 671 

7,581 

1,951 

95,  626 

966, 098 

20,527 

1,555,315 

30, 636' 

1,424,812 

9, 354 

1,977 

96, 931 

1,688, 965 

36,419 

1,247, 695 

24,576, 

1,772, 679 

11,640 

1,658 

81,310 

2,616, 271 

56,  761 

1,530, 722 

30, 150 

1,507,924 

9,901 

1,673 

82,046 

2, 609,  785 

56,  724 

1, 704, 940 

37,314 

1,651,738 

9,038 

1,440 

112, 980 

2, 955, 563 

64, 247 

2, 515,  463 

55,052’ 

1,650,250 

9,030 

1,874 

146,997 

4,384,014 

95, 163 

2,388,380 

52, 270 

2, 409, 365 

13, 182 

2,  436 

191, 058 

5,112, 615 

110,640 

1,982,021 

43,379’ 

1,942,000 

10,629 

1,546 

121,250 

4, 130, 712 

89, 152 

2,385,044 

52, 200 

2, 126, 137 

11,633 

1,896 

148, 668 

13,673,247 

105,325 

3,255,158 

71,243 

2,  493,  403 

13, 647 

5,  416,  702 

182, 050 

6, 947, 953 

151,602 

3,227,534 

70, 634 

1,933,434 

10,580 

5, 103, 649 

169,  750 

7,  758, 146 

120,809 

3,727,979 

81,595 

2,  438, 288 

13,338 

4,459,906 

148, 357 

6,396,415 

139, 197 

4,171,103 

91,278 

2,372,150 

12, 976 

4,929,486 

164, 000 

7, 202, 292 

156, 634 

5,  859, 827 

1 128,252 

2, 696, 226 

14, 746 

6, 080,  287 

202, 282 

8, 189,  871 

177,813 

6,382,317 

i 139,663 

2, 153, 894 

11,781 

7, 054,  720 

234,  700 

10, 475, 931 

227,  778 

7,433,911 

1 162,716 

3,511,928 

19,217 

6,313,974 

210,055 

13,417,8.33 

292, 467 

7, 220,  433 

! 158,028 

1 1 

3,013,238 

16,  487 

6, 272, 634 

208, 671 

15, 104, 804 

328, 018 

1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

1906. 

1907. 

1908. 

1909. 

1910. 

1911. 

1912. 


Packing-house  products— Continued. 


Meat  extract. 

Meat,  frozen,  n.  o.  s. 

Meat  preserved. 

Mutton, 

frozen. 

Pounds. 

Dollars. 

Pounds. 

Dollars. 

Pounds. 

Dollars. 

Pounds. 

Dollars. 

328, 173 

201, 105 

888, 460 

15,. 556 

2,0.35,424 

89, 094 

92,334,000 

1,616,638 

1,076,307 

659, 565 

1,333,963 

23,357 

4,504,349 

197, 162 

99, 439, 000 

1,741,058 

405,922 

248, 750 

1,. 537, 885 

26,926 

2,538,100 

111,098 

112,202,000 

1,964,526 

667, 474 

584,329 

2,140,553 

37, 480 

3,577,963 

156,614 

131, 909, 000 

2, 309, 590 

843, 823 

738,711 

2,033,000 

35, 573 

4,004,000 

175,244 

124,841,000 

2, 185,  792 

253, 990 

222, 351 

2,401,000 

68,319 

3, 097, 000 

1.35, 563 

124, 367, 000 

4, 355, 019 

477,951 

418,414 

3,109,000 

88,  440 

2,085,927 

91,402 

138, 920, 000 

4,864,587 

653, 335 

571,952 

5, 556, 000 

158,086 

3,624,487 

158, 650 

176, 531, 000 

6, 181,  601 

764,093 

668, 913 

6,918, 000 

196, 834 

8, 248, 677 

361, 059 

172, 271,000 

6, 033, 140 

456,564 

399, 691 

9, 235, 000 

262, 777 

5, 355, 000 

234,361 

195, 365, 000 

6,841,162 

960,048 

840, 467 

12,085,617 

343, 829 

5,485,045 

240, 117 

172,  7.32,  615 

6,048,677 

928, 293 

812, 667 

13,575,927 

386, 265 

2,  775, 591 

121,501 

148,563,585 

5, 202, 368 

1, 974,  852 

■l.*728, 869 

15, 269, 060 

434,441 

3,515,834 

153, 895 

153, 848,011 

5, 387, 384 

1,521,121 

! 1,331,654 

25,112, 599 

714,506 

3, 808, 283 

166,  696 

173, 823,  892 

6, 086, 919 

2,  979, 504 

1 2,608,383 

22,019, 545 

626,  484 

14,087,667 

616,648 

146,594,877 

5. 1.33,  426 

3, 358, 355 

1 2,940,046 

24, 475, 048 

696, 361 

26, 635;  688 

1, 165, 900 

165, 569, 869 

5,797, 848 

1,136, 641 

! 995, 064 

32,114,538 

913, 719 

33, 980,  230 

1 , 487, 386 

189,410,414 

6, 632, 720 

1,349, 061 

’ 1,181,025 

34,526,241 

982, 362 

1 39,019,215 

1 

1,707,9.36 

154, 707,  805 

5,  417, 482 

38 


FAilMEKS^  BULLETIN  581. 


Table  20. — Exports  of  meat  animals  and  packing-house  products  from  Argentina,  1805- 

1 912 — Continued . 


Packing-house  products— Concluded. 


Year. 


1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

1906. 

1907. 

1908. 
1903. 

1910. 

1911. 

1912. 


Oils,  animal. 

Tallow, 

pressed. 

Tallow  and  fat, 
melted. 

Tongues,  preserv- 
ed and  salted. 

All  other. 

Pounds. 

Dolls. 

Pounds. 

Dolls. 

Pounds. 

Dollars. 

Pounds. 

Dolls. 

Dollars. 

94.5,  633 

33,067 

18,929 

580 

89,481,000 

3,674,480 

1,75.5, 717 

153, 349 

30, 274 

773, 143 

28,  527 

8,360 

257 

75, 272,000 

3,068,050 

1,410,801 

123,  .501 

21,072 

842, 607 

28, 082 

778 

24 

69, 529,212 

2,56.3,086 

1,  244,644 

1G8, 302 

5,610 

650,950 
593, 442 
689,  520: 

24,015 
25,840 
31, 195 

2,  210 

58 

64, 685,  212 

53. 242.000 

54. 756.000 

2,  762,324 
2, 128,  397 
2, 707, 141 

1,  235,062 
1,  284,  406 
1,500, 750 

108, 122 
112,364 
197,049 

5,600 

9, 575 

293 

327, 428 

14,697 

12, 436 

381 

73,  .564, 000 

3,  766,120 

1,522,885 

198,  .332 

381 , 863 

19, 698 

113, 904 

3,490 

108, 236, 000 

5,991,722 

1,244,394 

161,979 

538,  755 

28, 190 

204,  263 

6,  2.59 

80,603,000 

4,. 589, 134 

1,046,177 

137, 194 

.533 

428, 938 

20,097 

187, 373 

5,742 

80,070,000 

3,871,660 

1,392, 602 

182, 771 

4,714 

731,416 

47,  699 

53, 448 

1,839 

100, 878,087 

5, 134,  861 

1,143,559 

150, 168^ 

578,479 

648,  424 

44, 150 

155,356 

4,760 

55, 778,  585 

3,708,038 

670, 194 

88,008 

925, 631 

490,  601 

36,972 

218,  668 

6,700 

68, 155, 209 

4, 638, 596 

1,669,032 

219, 170 

1,483,039 

760,  735 
811,  227 

39.917 
46;  930 
52,834 
61,320 
8i;  339 

99, 950 

3, 062 

96,951,694 
119,  764,  895 
128, 761,  868 
168, 482, 146 
166,  .570,  75S 

5,819,530 
7,308, 167 
9, 202, 897 
11,3.56, 988 
10,918,  713 

1,925,  780 
2,648,796 
2,089,612 
1,. 573, 716 
1,392, 745 

2.52,886 
347, 828 

1,196,521 

1,020,6.56 

765,  774 
926,011 
1, 182, 400 

9,235 

283 

274, 400 
206,655 
182, 890 

1, 223,585 
873,064 
1,302,322 

IMPORTS  OF  MEAT  INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Although  the  United  States  exported  1,143,357,441  pounds  of 
meat  and  meat  products  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1913, 
and  is  still  exporting  large  amounts,  mostly  pork  and  pork  products^ 
oleo  oil,  and  tallow,  large  imports  of  beef  liave  been  received  since 
October,  1913,  nearly  three-fifths  of  it  from  Argentina.  In  October, 
2,069,794  pounds  of  fresh  and  frozen  beef  were  received  from  Argen- 
tina and  passed  inspection  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry;  in 
November,  3,988,898  pounds;  in  December,  9,440,488  pounds;  and 
in  January,  8,935,797  pounds;  and  the  total  for  the  four  months ‘is 
24,434,977  pounds.  During  the  same  time  from  other  countries 
were  received  17,729,621  pounds  of  fresh  and  frozen  beef,  and  the 
total  from  all  countries  thus  becomes  42,164,598  pounds. 

During  the  four  months  the  imports  from  Argentina  included  also 
537,9^h3  pounds  of  fresh  and  frozen  mutton,  177,801  pounds  of  canned 
beef,  1,268,887  pounds  of  oleo  stearin,  and  470  pounds  of  edible 
tallow. 

The  total  meat  and  meat  products  imported  from  Argentina  during 
the  four  months  and  not  condemned  weighed  26,420,078  pounds. 
Only  1,278  pounds  of  Argentine  beef  were  condemned  as  unfit  for 
consumption.  Tlie  details  of  the  imports  of  meat  and  meat  products 
into  this  country  from  Argentina  and  from  all  countries  in  the  aggre- 
gate during  the  four  montlis  from.  October  to  January  just  past  may 
be  found  in  Table  21 . 

Two-fifths  of  the  imports  of  fresh  and  frozen  beef  during  the  four 
montlis  came  from  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Canada,  Mexico,  and 
Uruguay. 


THE  AGKICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


39 


The  present  beef  production  of  this  country  for  one  year,  it  is  esti- 
mated, is  somewhat  less  than  7,000,000,000  pounds,  and  the  imports 
of  fresh  and  frozen  beef  from  all  countries  at  the  recent  rate  would 
amount  to  about  2 per  cent  of  the  national  production;  the  imports 
from  Argentina  for  a year  at  the  present  rate  would  be  about  1.3  per 
cent  of  the  national  production. 


Table  21— Meat  and  meat  products  imported  from  Argentina  and  all  countries  and 
inspected  hy  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  October,  1913,  to  January,  1914- 


Commodity. 

All  countries,  4 months. 

Argentina. 

Total. 

Argentina. 

Other 

countries. 

October, 

1913. 

Novem- 
ber, 1913. 

Decem- 
ber, 1913. 

January, 

1914. 

Not  condemned. 

Flesh  and  frozen: 

Beef 

Povnds. 

42,104.598 

215.061 

967,564 

1,364 

488.761 

Pounds. 

24,434,977 

Pounds. 
17, 729,621 
215.061 
429.621 
1,364 
488,761 

1 

Pounds. 

2,069,794 

Pounds. 

3.988,898 

Pounds. 

9. 440. 488 

Pounds. 

8,935,797 

Afntton  

537,943 

10,204 

237.422 

290,317 

Ooat  meat-  

Pork  

Total.. 

Canned: 

Beef 

43. 837,. 34  8 

24.972,920 

18,864,428 

2,069,794 

3,999,102 

9,677.910 

9,226.114 

1 

2.181.629 
6.622 
11,. 5 44 
27.118 
119 

177.801 

2,003,828 

6,622 

11,544 

27,118 

119 

31.025 

130.176 

16.600 

Vpal  

Mutton 

Pork 

1 

j 

Other 

1 



Total 

2,227.032 

177,801 

2.049,231 

1 

31.025 

130, 176 

16.600 

Cured: 

Rp.fif 

338,001 

2,007 

1.137,606 

338,001 

2,007 

1.137.606 

1 

Mutton 

Pork 

Total  . ... 

1.477.614 

1,477.614 

San Rape 

259.546 
41,623 
1.943.699 
23.822 
12 
20 
33, 120 
44.042 

259.-546 

41.623 

674,812 

28,822 

12 

Compound  _ 

Oleo-stearin 

Olen  oil 

1.268,887 

46,070 

63, 709 

546.588 

612,620 

Olp.omavprarinp 

i 

T ,ard  

20 

33,120 

43,572 

Beef  extract  

1 . . 

F.dibip,  tallow 

470 

470 

Total,  not  condemned . 

Condemned. 

Total 



49,892,878 

181,712 

26,420.078 

1,278 

123.472,800 

180,434 

2,115,864  i 

4.093,836 

! 462 

10,354.674 

i 

1 816 

9,855,704 

1 

1 i 

SUMMARY. 

The  conclusions  of  the  subject  may  be  briefly  assembled.  Imported 
Argentine  dressed  beef  adds  to  tlie  national  supply  of  the  United 
States,  at  the  recent  rate,  a little  over  1 per  cent.  Wide  some  of  this 
meat  has  come  from  British  frigorificos  at  Buenos  Aires,  a great  deal 
of  it  has  been  consigned  by  the  Buenos  Aires  frigorificos  of  the  Chicago 
slaughtering  and  packing  companies,  to  themselves  at  New  York  for 
sale  by  themselves  in  New  York,  or  wherever  they  please  to  send  it 
by  rail.  It  is  not  assumed  that  they  are  using  Argentine  beef  to  beat 
down  the  prices  of  Chicago  beef. 


40 


FAEMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


Practically,  the  Argentine  beef  that  has  come  to  this  country  has 
relieved  the  London  market  of  just  so  much  downward  pressure,  and 
Ai’gentine  dressed  beef  is  about  four-fifths  of  the  imported  supply  of 
the  United  Ifingdom,  or  one-third  of  the  national  consumption  of 
beef.  As  between  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States, 
Argentine  dressed  beef  is  free  to  go  to  the  better  market.  In  this 
country  it  is  competitive,  if  it  is  really  competitive  at  all,  only  with 
the  lower  grades  of  domestic  dressed  beef. 

Cattle  in  Argentina  are  not  more  numerous  than  they  were  five 
years  ago,  and  perhaps  they  are  less  numerous.  That  country  can 
not  increase  its  beef  supply  permanently  until  the  slaughter  first 
ceases  to  increase  or  actually  lessens  sufficiently  to  give  its  herds 
liberty  and  time  to  increase. 


COLONIAL  COTTON. 


By  George  K.  Holmes. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  TO  THE  AMERICAN  CROP. 

Xotable  efforts  have  been  made  to  stimulate  the  production  of 
cotton  in  colonies  since  1903  by  the  British  Cotton  Growers’  Asso- 
ciation, and,  on  a less  extensive  scale,  by  the  German  Colonial 
Economic  Committee,  by  the  Colonial  Cotton  Association  of  France, 
by  the  Industrial  Association  of  Lisbon,  by  the  Cotton  Industrial 
Association  and  Cotton  Exchange  of  Italy,  by  the  Netherlands  Cotton 
Growing  Association,  by  the  Belgian  Cotton  Association,  and  for 
Spain  by  the  National  Industrial  Propaganda. 

Ten  years  ago  the  fear  of  the  European  spinners  that  the  L^nited 
States  cotton  crop  would  be  insuff  cient  for  their  uses  led  them  to  begin 
this  extensive  movement.  As  the  annual  report  of  the  British  Cotton 
Growers’  Association  for  1912  states,  ‘ff  the  climatic  conditions  M-ere 
always  favorable  in  the  United  States  this  association  might  never 
have  come  into  existence.  One  of  its  main  objects,  and  that  of  the 
German,  French,  and  other  similar  associations,  is  to  extend  the 
cultivation  of  cotton  throughout  the  world  and  broaden  the  basis 
of  supply,  so  that  the  failure  of  the  crop  in  any  one  particular  country 
will  be  balanced  by  a corresponding  increase  in  other  countries.  The 
broader  the  basis  the  broader  the  supply,  with  a consequent  greater 
steadiness  in  price.” 

The  year  immediately  antedating  this  great  movement  is  1903. 
Table  22  has  been  compiled  to  show  the  colonial  production  of  cotton 
in  that  year  and  also  in  every  following  year  to  1912.  The  British 
efforts  have  been  especially  active  in  Nigeria,  Nyassaland  Protecto- 
rate, Uganda,  British  East  Africa,  and  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


41 


The  German  efforts  have  been  matle  mainly  in  German  East  Africa 
and  in  Togo.  In  the  British  African  countries  mentioned  7^263  hales 
of  cotton  were  produced  in  1903,  42,266  hales  in  1907,  and  50,988’ 
hales  in  1912,  an  increase  of  35,003  hales  from  1903  to  1907  and  an 
increase  of  8,722  hales  during  the  last  five  years.  In  the  British 
West  Indies  cotton  production  increased  from  866  hales  in  1903  to 
5,492  hales  in  1907,  from  which  quantity  the  production  fell  to  5,048 
hedes  in  1912. 

'Idirough  the  German  association  cotton  production  increased  from 
191  hales  in  German  East  Africa  and  Togo  in  1903  to  2,365  hales  in 
1907,  and  to  11,224  hales  in  1912. 

In  all  the  British  colonies  and  in  Anglo-Egyptiaii  Sudan  the  cotton 
production  of  1912  shows  an  increase  of  13,201  bales  over  that  of  1907. 

If  all  of  the  cotton-producing  colonies  are  combined,  as  they  are  in 
Table  22,  it  may  he  observed  that  their  production  in  1903  was  36,269 
hales,  and  in  1907,  92,565  bales,  or  an  increase  of  56,296  hales  in  four 
years.  In  1912  the  cotton  production  was  102,890  hales,  or  10,325 
hales  above  the  total  production  of  1907,  five  years  previous. 

Theoretically,  an  almost  fabulous  quantity  of  cotton  can  be  grown 
in  the  colonies  embraced  in  Table  22.  Some  of  this  cotton  is  quite 
similar  to  the  Upland  cotton  of  the  United  States,  but  much  of  it  is 
of  shorter  fiber,  while  again  cotton  of  long  fiber  is  produced  on  the 
sea  islands.  But  it  is  a large  undertaking  to  induce  the  natives  of 
these  colonies  to  labor,  and  to  labor  during  the  long  period  of  time 
required  to  produce  a cotton  crop;  in  some  of  the  more  promising 
of  the  colonies,  great  obstacles  have  been  overcome,  or  need  to  be 
overcome,  to  transport  the  cotton  to  the  seaboard.  Some  of  the 
problems  of  this  sort  are  gradually  being  solved.  In  some  of  the 
British  colonies  the  producers  are  guaranteed  a minimum  price  for 
the  purpose  of  encouragmg  them  to  raise  a crop. 

The  results  of  the  efforts  of  the  British  and  German  associations, 
and  in  a less  degree  of  the  other  associations,  as  exhibited  in  Table 
22,  emphasize  the  magnitude  of  their  combined  undertakings  to  pro- 
duce enough  cotton  to  supplement  the  American  crop  of  14,000,000 
bales  and  over  in  any  considerable  degree.  One  county  alone  in 
Texas  produced  in  1909  77,000  bales,  or  three-fourths  of  the  com- 
bined product  of  all  of  the  cotton-growing  colonies.  There  are  many 
counties  in  Texas  and  other  States  that  each  produce  from  one-third 
to  one-half  of  the  colonial  production. 


42  FABMEES^  BULLETIN  581. 

I 

Table  22 —Colonial  cotton  production^  190S-1912. 


[Computed  to  bales  of  500  pounds  gross,  or  478  pounds  of  lint  net.  Egypt  and  India  not  Included.] 


National  and  geographic 
groups. 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

BELGL^N. 

Bales. 

Bales. 

Bales. 

Bales. 

Bales. 

Bales. 

Bales. 

Bales. 

Bales. 

Bales. 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

BRITISH. 

Africa:  i 

Nigeria 

606 

3,004 

3, 134 

6,385 

8,556 

4,800 

10,529 

5, 185 

4,682 

9, 148 

Nyassaland  Protectorate. . 

118 

597 

1,625 

1,101 

844 

1,582 

1,729 

3,634 

2,845 

6, 773 

45 

201 

819 

4,024 

3,  401 

5,429 

19,442 

17,456 

21, 986 

Other  Africa 

Ti 

917 

449 

634 

351 

717 

521 

469 

441 

1,020 

Total  Africa 

751 

4,563 

5,409 

8,939 

13, 775 

10, 500 

18, 208 

28, 730 

25, 424 

38, 927 

America:  Mostly  or  enthely 

West  Indies 

866 

1,653 

2, 508 

3,290 

5,492 

5,776 

4,303 

4,989 

6,392 

5,048 

Asia 

1,012 

1,490 

1,962 

3,920 

4,774 

4,352 

3,840 

5, 639 

7,940 

9,122 

Europe 

285 

345 

340 

348 

443 

364 

379 

411 

392 

975 

Oceania  i 

1 

18 

79 

54 

82 

89 

90 

no 

165 

125 

Total  British 

2,915 

8,069 

10, 298 

16, 551 

24, 566 

21,081 

26,820 

39,879 

40,313 

54, 197 

DUTCH. 

Asia:  East  Indies  i 

12, 632 

15,367 

13, 280 

15,944 

19,652 

19,932 

113,235 

14,504 

11,902 

2 11,902 

FRENCH. 

Africa! 

3 

346 

206 

447 

619 

649 

911 

832 

3 1,742 

3 1, 976 

America:  West  Indies  i 

1 

13 

7 

14 

10 

26 

12 

12 

8 

28 

Asia  (mostly  Indo-China)i. .... 

13,693 

15, 269 

18,117 

11,082 

15,877 

20,968 

14,146 

9, 451 

8,709 

2 8,  709 

Oceania  i 

71 

49 

39 

110 

109 

73 

348 

417 

336 

4 923 

Total  French 

13,768 

15, 677 

18, 369 

11,653 

16,615 

21,716 

15,417 

10, 712 

10,  795 

11,616 

GERMAN. 

Africa  (mostly  East  Africa  and 

Togo)  1 

191 

1,371 

1,489 

1,764 

2,365 

3,190 

4, 762 

10, 132 

7,372 

11,224 

Oceania:  Bismarck  Archipel- 

ago ! 

240 

56 

15 

38 

5 

Total  German 

431 

1,427 

1,504 

1,802 

2,  .370 

3, 190 

4,762 

10,132 

7,372 

11, 224 

ITALIAN. 

Africa:  Eritrea 

43 

62 

370 

890 

636 

770 

1,307 

1,247 

PORTUGUESE. 

Africa  ^ 

6 

179 

518 

282 

431 

241 

468 

209 

576 

576 

Sudan,  Anglo-Egyptian 

6,517 

15,097 

19,441 

17,782 

28,558 

24, 170 

13,222 

13,238 

17,3  2 

12, 128 

Total  for  countries  men- 

tioned   

36,269 

.55, 859 

63,473 

64,015 

92,565 

91,221 

74,560 

89,445 

89,657 

102,890 

GRAND  DIVISIONS, 

Africa 

7,468 

21,599 

27, 126 

29,215 

46, 121 

39, 641 

38,207 

53,912 

53,813 

66,078 

America 

867 

1, 665 

2,515 

3,304 

5,502 

5,802 

4,315 

5,001 

6,400 

5,056 

Asia 

27,337 

32, 128 

33,359 

30,946 

40,303 

45,  252 

31,221 

29,594 

28,551 

29,733 

Europe 

285 

345 

340 

348 

443 

364 

379 

411 

392 

975 

Oceania 

312 

123 

133 

202 

196 

162 

438 

527 

501 

1,048 

Total 

36,269 

55, 859 

63, 473 

64, 015 

92, 565 

91,221 

74,500 

89,445 

89,657 

102,890 

1 Exports.  New  Caledonia  alone,  without  Tahiti  production, 

2 Year  preceding.  6 imports  into  Portugal. 

3 Production. 


In  connection  with  the  foregoing  study  of  possible  new  sources  of 
supply  it  will  be  helpful  to  refer  to  the  present  principal  sources  of 
world  supply  of  this  crop.  In  Table  23  is  given  such  a statement, 
with  comparisons,  so  far  as  available,  for  decennial  periods  back 
to  1870. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


43 


Table  23. — Production  of  cotton. 


Y ear. 

United  States. 

Egypt. 

British  India. 

Bussia. 

Beni. 

1870 

Bales. 
4,024,527 
6, 356, 998 
8, 562,089 
10, 266, 527 
12, 005,688 
15,092,701 
13,  703, 421 
13, 677, 000 

Bales. 

408, 359 
575,307 
843, 877 
1,124, 617 
1,548, 713 
1,514,730 
1,538, 395 
1,560, 922 

Bales. 

Bales. 

Bales. 

1880 

1890 

1,699,582 
2,471,449 
3,  600,  837 
3,284,519 
2,751,4rA 
3, 677, 824 

1900 

1633,065 

2 1,020,570 

2 981,921 

2 1,135,137 

2 1,053,845 

44,000 
76, 869 

1910 

1911  . 

1912 

1913  (pr'^liminary) 

1 Not  including  Khiva  and  Bokhara.  2 Including  Khiva  and  Bokhara. 


CROP  REPORTING  SYSTEMS  AND  SOURCES  OF  CROP  INFORMATION  IN 

FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

[Paper  read  by  Chatiles  M.  Daugherty  before  a recent  meeting  of  special  field  agents  at  the  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture.] 

Government  crop  reporting,  or  crop  estimating,  as  distinct  from 
census  enumeration,  has  been  a development,  in  all  countries  where 
it  is  practiced,  of  the  past  50  years;  and  hence  has  been  coincident 
with  the  marvelous  expansion  of  the  world’s  cultivated  land,  wdth  the 
multitudmous  improvements  in  farm  methods  and  agricultural  ma- 
chmery,  and  with  the  wide  extension  of  the  means  of  transport  and 
communication  which  have  characterized  that  period.  Even  before 
steamship,  railway,  and  telegraph  had  promoted  rapid  and  volumi- 
nous interchange  of  commodities  among  nations,  it  had  been  recog- 
nized that  a prompt,  even  though  approximate,  knowledge  each  year 
of  the  areas  under  the  great  food  crops,  of  the  condition  of  the  plants 
at  intervals  during  the  growing  season,  and  of  the  final  results  of  the 
thrashings  would  be  of  great  economic  and  commercial  value;  and 
although  some  tentative  efforts  were  made  earlier  in  the  century, 
notably  in  England  and  France,  to  devise  some  trustworthy  scheme 
of  crop  estimating,  no  satisfactory  system  of  acc|uiring  and  popular- 
izing such  knowledge  was  evolved  until  the  adoption  in  the  United 
States  of  the  crop-reporting  system,  which  has  now  been  in  operation 
for  the  past  48  3^ears.  In  France,  it  is  true,  the  French  Department 
of  Agriculture  in  its  yearbook  publishes  a continuous  record  of  the 
acreage  and  production  of  wheat  and  potatoes  each  year  since  1815, 
the  year  of  Waterloo,  to  the  current  date.  Up  to  1882,  however, 
the  figures  are  decennial  estimates  for  census  years,  and  for  the 
intercensal  years  merely  office  estimates,  not  based  upon  actual 
investigations  in  the  field.  Estimates  of  the  French  Department  of 
Agriculture,  based  on  the  crop-estimating  system  proper,  date  only 
from  1882. 

In  Great  Britain  the  official  record  of  the  area  annually  devoted  to 
certain  cereals,  as  estimated  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries, 
extends  back  to  1866,  but  estimates  of  yields  only  to  1884.  The 


44 


farmers'  bulletin  581. 


ofFicial  figures,  it  may  be  added,  are  often  supplemented  by  the  private 
estimates  of  Sir  John  Lawes,  who  from  experiments  conducted  at  his 
experimental  farm  at  Kothamsted  and  other  data  had  worked  out 
estimates  of  .the  annual  area  of  wheat  in  the  United  Kingdom  from 
1852  to  1866  and  of  the  annual  production  from  1852  to  1884.  Com- 
bining the  official  and  private  estimates  wo  have  a continuous 
record  of  the  surface  under  wheat  and  the  yield  in  the  United  King- 
dom from  1852  to  date,  but  annual  estimates  bearing  the  sanction  of 
official  authority  exist  for  acreage  only  from  1866  and  for  production 
from  1884. 

The  science  and  practice  of  crop  estimating  may  therefore  be  said 
to  have  had  its  origin  in  1866  in  the  United  States.  Within  the 
next  half  century  organizations  for  prompt  estimation  of  areas, 
yields,  and  other  valuable  economic  facts  respecting  agriculture 
were  established  in  practically  all  the  more  progressive  and  commer- 
cially important  countries  of  the  world.  Every  nation  of  Europe, 
excepting  Turkey,  now  publishes  annual  official  estimates  of  the 
yields  of  a greater  or  less  number  of  its  crops.  In  Asia  crop  reporting- 
systems  gather  more  or  less  comprehensive  data  in  Asiatic  Kussia, 
British  India,  Japan,  and  even  in  a few  Provinces  of  China.  In 
Africa  the  result  of  an  estimating  system  is  now  available  annually 
for  Egypt,  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  two  or  three  States  of  the  Union  of 
►South  Africa.  On  the  Western  Hemisphere  annual  estimates  rela- 
tive to  the  more  important  crops  are  made  in  Canada,  the  United 
States,  Mexico,  Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  Chile,  and  official  reports 
are  issued  annually  respecting  the  cereal  crops  of  each  State  of  Aus- 
tralia and  in  New  Zealand.  As  a rule  the  official  crop-reporting 
organizations  in  the  different  foreign  countries  are  under  the  control 
and  form  an  integral  part  of  the  respective  Departments  of  Agricul- 
ture, and  though  the  methods  of  collecting  the  information  and 
working  out  the  results  vary  to  some  extent  in  the  various  Govern- 
ments it  is  notable  that  the  same  fundamental  principle  underlies 
all  systems,  i.  e.,  periodical  reports  made  either  directly  or  indirectly 
to  the  central  Government  by  authorized  voluntary  correspondents 
resident  in  each  of  the  smaller  political  divisions  of  a country  and 
thoroughly  familiar  with  local  conditions.  The  reports  are  made 
on  schedules  formulated  and  furnished  by  the  central  Government. 

The  correspondents  in  the  political  subdivisions  usually  consist  of 
one  or  more  local  administrative  officials  and  a small  number  of  other 
competent  persons,  distinguished  as  being  representatives  of  agri- 
cultural societies  or  as  being  closely  identified  with  the  actual  tilling 
of  the  soil. 

Separate  corps  of  correspondents  analogous  to  the  township  and 
county  correspondents  and  State  and  special  agents  of  the  United 


THE  AGRICULTUEAL  OUTLOOK. 


45 


States  Department  of  Agriculture,  do  not  exist;  in  other  words,  when 
in  the  prosecution  of  an  inquiry  several  sets  of  schedules  are  returned 
to  the  department  here  one  set  is  returnetl  to  the  central  offices 
abroad.  To  generalize  respecting  details  of  the  various  methods  of 
collecting  data  in  countries  wliere  the  political  organization  of  each 
differs  from  the  others  in  the  classification  and  nomenclature  of  its 
})olitical  subdivisions  is,  however,  practically  inq)ossible.  It  would 
probably  be  of  more  interest  to  describe  briefly  the  system  of  a single 
country — France. 

In  France  the  official  crop-reporting  organization  consists,  on  the 
one  hand,  of  an  administrative  bureau  in  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, and,  on  the  other,  of  what  may  for  convenience  be  called  a corps 
of  crop  correspondents  resident  in  each  political  subdivision  of  the 
country.  The  functions  of  the  administrative  ])ureau,  in  so  far  as 
crop  reporting  is  concerned,  are  the  preparation  and  mailing  of  sched- 
ules and  the  tabulation  amd  publication  of  the  results.  The  functions 
and  organization  of  the  crop  correspondents,  as  compared  with  those 
of  our  own  country,  are  somewhat  peculiar.  The  political  subdivi- 
sions of  France,  ranging  from  the  smallest  to  the  largest,  are  com- 
munes, cantons,  arrondissements,  and  departments.  No  exactly 
corresponding  subdivision  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States  exists, 
the  nearest  approach  being  townships,  counties,  and  States.  With 
the  before-mentioned  political  subdivisions  of  the  country  in  mind, 
the  organization  of  the  crop  correspondents  may  be  described  as 
follows:  In  each  rural  commune  (there  are  36,222  rural  and  urban)  is 
maintained  an  organization  known  as  the  communal  statistical  com- 
mission, consisting  of  the  chief  administrative  officer  of  the  commune, 
one  member  of  the  municipal  council,  and  not  less  than  three  nor 
more  than  five  farmers.  In  each  rural  canton,  the  next  largest 
administrative  unit,  and  of  which  there  are  2,911  (urban  and  rural) 
in  France,  is  a similar  organization,  known  as  the  cantonal  statistical 
commission — members,  the  chief  administrative  oflicer  of  the  canton, 
the  justice  of  the  peace,  other  cantonal  functionaries,  and  from  three 
to  seven  prominent  farmers.  Each  arrondissement,  the  next  largest 
unit,  is  represented  in  this  crop-reporting  system  by  officials  known 
as  special  professors  of  agriculture,  and  the  departments  by  depart- 
mental professors  of  agriculture;  both  classes  of  professors  have 
access  to  and  a deliberative  voice  in  the  sessions  of  the  communal 
and  cantonal  commissions,  where  their  functions  are  largely  of  an 
ad^dsory  and  supervisory  character;  both,  in  the  crop-reportmg  sys- 
tem, perform  the  same  supervisory  functions  in  the  arrondissements 
and  departments  as  do  the  cantonal  commission  in  the  cantons. 

For  any  periodical  inquiry  respecting  areas  or  production,  schedules 
prepared  by  the  bureau  above  mentioned  are  transmitted  tlirough 


46 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


the  chief  officers  (prefects)  of  the  86  departments  to  eacii  of  the  four 
classes  of  bodies  which  constitute  the  crop-reporting  scr'vdce  of  the 
Republic;' i.  e,,  to  the  communal  commissions,  to  the  cantonal  com- 
missions, to  the  special  professors  of  agriculture  in  the  arrondisse- 
ments,  and  to  the  professors  of  agriculture  in  the  departments.  The 
most  imp«)rtant  duties  relative  to  collecting  the  data  and  ffiling  out 
the  schedules  now  devolve  upon  the  communal  commissions.  By  the 
aid  of  communal  cadasters — that  is,  permanent  revised  registers  kept 
in  the  archives  of  each  commune,  showing  the  actual  distribution  of 
the  surface  of  the  commune  among  various  crops,  w^oodland,  the 
average  yield  per  hectare,  etc.,  in  a selected  or  cadastral  year — the 
commissions  fill  out  the  schedules  for  their  respective  communes  and 
return  them  to  the  prefects  of  the  departments.  The  cadaster,  it  may 
be  noted  incidentally,  is  in  many  European  countries  a fundamental 
element  in  making  estimates  of  both  area  and  production  ; it  enables 
an  almost  exact  enumeration  of  areas  to  be  made  and,  partly  because 
of  the  rigid  system  of  crop  rotation  followed,  permit  a very  satis- 
factory estimate  of  yields.  It  is  partly  due  to  the  cadaster  that  crop 
estimates  in  European  countries  are  rarely,  if  ever,  adjusted  to 
census  figures.  The  prefects,  as  rapidly  as  the  completed  schedules 
are  received  from  the  communal  commissions,  arrange  them  in  groups 
by  cantons  and  refer  them  to  the  respective  cantonal  commissions. 

The  province  of  any  given  cantonal  commission  is  to  revise  and,  if 
necessary,  to  correct  the  communal  schedules  and  to  combine  the 
data  they  contain  into  a recapitulative  schedule  for  the  entire  canton. 
The  work  of  verifying  and  correcting  the  communal  schedules  is  dis- 
tributed among  the  members  of  the  cantonal  commissions  in  such 
a way  that  to  each  member  is  assigned  those  communes  with  which 
he  is  most  familiar.  He  has  the  right  to  demand  enlightenment  on 
doubtful  points  from  the  communal  commissions  and  to  appeal  to 
competent  authorities  for  complementary  information.  The  recapitu- 
lative schedules  when  comj^leted  for  the  cantons  are  forwarded 
through  the  prefects  of  the  departments  to  the  special  professors  of 
agriculture  in  the  several  arrondissements  by  whom  they  are  in  turn 
corrected,  revised,  combined  into  a recapitulative  schedule  for  the 
arrondissements  and  forwarded  through  the  medium  of  the  prefect 
to  the  departmental  professors  of  agriculture.  Recapitulative  sched- 
ules for  the  departments  are  then  made  up  and  submitted  to  the 
central  bureau,  where  they  are  tabulated  for  the  whole  of  France  and 
published.  The  results  of  all  investigations  as  soon  as  available  are 
published  in  the  official  Journal  of  the  Republic,  issued  daily,  and 
later  in  the  Bulletin  of  Agricultural  Intelligence  (monthly)  published 
by  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture.  The  final  and  revised  figures  on  the 
area  and  production  of  about  40  crops  appear  by  departments  in 


TPIE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


47 


the  yearbook  of  the  Ministry,  published  about  15  to  18  months  after 
the  harvest  of  the  crops  to  which  the  figures  relate. 

The  French  system  of  estimating  area  and  production,  it  is  appar- 
ent, is  one  where  the  data  gathered  by  a corps  of  reporters,  most 
nearly  resembling  our  corps  of  townsliip  reporters,  are  successively 
corrected,  approved,  and  indorsed,  before  they  reach  tlie  central 
OiTice,  by  the  crop  reporters  of  each  of  the  larger  subdivisions  of  the 
Republic.  The  figures  are  always  under  the  control  of  ollicial  bodies 
presided  over  by  an  oiTicial  of  the  various  political  subdivisions  of 
the  country,  and  the  process  of  arriving  at  a final  result  may  be 
described  as  a cumulative  one.  Perhaps  after  all  the  radical  differ- 
ence between  this  system  and  that  in  force  in  the  United  States  is 
that  ill  France  the  correctional  and  re  visional  functions  performed 
by  the  cantonal  commissions  and  the  professors  of  agriculture  in  the 
aiTondissements  and  departments  devolve  in  our  country  upon  the 
Crop-Reporting  Board,  and  that  the  final  tabulation  of  the  schedules, 
after  they  reach  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  is  more  simple,  since  onlj^ 
one  schedule  from  each  of  the  86  departments  remains  to  be  tabu- 
lated. The  French  system  is  in  a broad  sense  typical  of  that  prac- 
ticed in  some  other  foreign  countries,  particularly  in  countries  having 
cadasters,  but  it  has  been  cited  here  not  so  much  from  that  fact  as 
to  illustrate  the  variations  in  crop-estimating  systems  which  may 
arise  from  differences  in  the  political  constitutions  of  governments, 
from  geographical  and  climatic  causes,  and  even  from  the  mental 
attitude  of  a people  toward  government  and  economy. 

In  Great  Britain,  for  instance,  the  schedules  prepared  in  the  Board 
of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  are  primarily  turned  over  to  the  Board 
of  Trade.  Agents  of  the  last-named  board,  known  as  collectors  of 
inland  revenue  and  stationed  throughout  the  various  counties,  mail 
them  to  the  farmers  in  their  respective  jurisdictions.  When  filled 
out  the  schedules  are  collected  by  these  agents,  and  through  the 
Board  of  Trade  returned  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture  for  the  elaboration 
and  pubheation  of  the  data.  In  Argentina  estimates  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  on  production  of  wheat,  flaxseed,  oats,  and  barley 
arc  made  from  returns  of  thrashing-machine  operators,  but  the  figures 
of  nonthrashabie  farm  products  are  collected  by  means  of  crop  cor- 
respondents. In  Sweden  the  preliminary  estimates  of  the  yield  of 
wheat  and  other  cereals  are  based  on  the  natural  increase  from  the 
seed;  i.  e.,  without  reference  to  acreage,  the  total  yield  is  estimated  to 
represent  an  increase  of  fifteenfold,  seventeenfold,  twentyfold,  etc., 
of  the  seed  sown. 

In  the  work  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  the 
foreign  crop  statistics,  used  mostly  in  compiling  estimates  of  the  so- 
called  world’s  crop,  in  answering  verbal  and  other  inquiries,  and  in 


48 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


varied  research  work,  are  for  the  most  part  the  final  estimates  emanat- 
ing from  and  published  by  the  crop-reporting  bureaus  of  foreign 
Departments  of  Agriculture  and  other  official  organizations,  whose 
functions  embrace  that  class  of  work.  Although  identical  data, 
excepting  for  the  great  food  crops,  are  seldom  in  existence  for  all 
countries,  and  although  there  is  great  variation  in  the  number  of 
crops  reported  on  by  the  different  governments,  the  estimates,  as 
a whole,  cover  a wide  range;  and  embrace  areas  sown,  quantities  of 
seed  sown  per  unit  of  surface,  areas  destroyed  by  winter  kill  and  other 
causes,  areas  harvested,  periodical  condition  of  the  crops,  total  and 
per  capita  production,  in  terms  both  of  units  of  measurement  and 
weight,  average  yield  per  unit  of  surface,  percentage  of  loss  due  to 
drought,  hail,  floods,  vermin  and  other  causes,  total  and  per  capita 
consumption,  cost  of  production,  average  monthly  and  annual 
prices  of  farm  produce,  and  other  data.  The  estimates  used  are  pref- 
erably the  final  ones  published  in  the  yearbooks  of  the  respective 
governments:  for  the  smaller  divisions  and  islands  of  the  great 
Empires — British,  German,  French,  and  Dutch — the  figures  are 
usually  taken  from  the  Statistical  Abstracts  and  other  publications 
of  the  mother  countries.  The  larger  divisions  of  the  British  Empire — 
Canada,  Australia,  and  British  India — it  may  be  noted,  have  crop 
estimating  organizations  of  their  own  and  issue  yearbooks  and  other 
periodical  publications  relative  to  the  crops  of  their  respective  terri- 
tories. The  yearbooks  of  many  foreign  countries,  however,  are  not 
published  until  from  several  months  to  two  years  after  the  crops 
to  v/hich  they  relate  have  been  harvested.  In  such  cases  it  is  neces- 
sary to  utilize  for  current  data  preliminary  and  sometimes  even 
unofficial  estimates. 

Preliminary  estimates,  of  cereal  crops  especially,  are  made  by 
practically  all  countries  that  have  crop-reporting  organizations. 
These  are  made  and  published  in  some  countries  before  harvest  and 
in  others  as  soon  after  as  possible.  In  those  countries  which  publish 
an  ofheial  daily  gazette — as,  for  example,  the  Journal  Officiel  in 
France,  the  Keichsanzeiger  in  Germany,  the  Wiener  Zeitung  in 
Austria,  the  Pester  Lloyd  in  Hungary,  and  the  Journal  of  Industry 
and  Commerce  in  Russia — these  preliminary  figures,  immediately 
after  they  are  compiled,  are  made  available  to  the  general  public 
through  the  medium  of  an  official  organ.  In  some  other  countries 
they  are  first  disseminated  through  small  leaflets  and  afterwards 
published  in  greater  detail  in  the  succeeding  issues  of  monthly  or 
other  periodical  official  bulletins  such  as  are  exemplified  in  the 
monthly  Technical  and  Economic  Bulletin  published  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce,  Industry,  and  Agriculture  in  Italy,  the  monthly 
bulletin  of  Agricultural  Intelligence  by  the  department  of  agriculture 
in  France,  and  the  Bulletin  of  Agriculture,  Mines,  and  Mountains  by 


THE  AGRICULTUEAL  OUTLOOK. 


49 


the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Commerce,  and  Public  Works  in 
S])ain.  Of  course  the  official  data,  as  soon  as  released,  are  widely 
copied  by  the  unofficial  agricultural  and  trade  journals  of  the  various 
countries,  but  in  the  careful  work  done  by  this  Department  it  is  required 
that  in  all  possible  cases  the  actual  official  figures  only  must  be  used. 

In  the  foreign-crop  work  of  the  Department  the  presumably  more 
accurate  figures  of  agricultural  censuses  are  of  course  utilized  when- 
ever available.  Circumstances,  however,  limit  their  use  within  a 
narrow  range.  In  some  countries,  among  which  populous  British 
India  is  a notable  exam})le,  no  agricultural  census  has  ever  been 
taken;  even  in  Great  Britain  none  exists  cxce])ting  that  of  1908.  In 
some  other  countries  the  intervals  between  census  takings  are  of 
extraordinary  duration,  having  extended  in  Argentina  from  1895  to 
1908;  the  last  one  in  Bussia  was  taken  in  1897.  Decennial  censuses 
are  taken  regularly  in  France,  Germany,  and  some  other  countries; 
in  the  quinquennial  censuses  of  Denmark  and  Norway  the  areas 
returned  under  the  various  crops  are  utilized  unchanged  in  estimating 
the  crop  production  of  intercensal  years.  From  a statistical  point 
of  view  it  may  be  said  in  general  that  in  most  foreign  ^countries  the 
value  of  their  agricultural  censuses,  particularly  in  tneir  relation  to 
the  great  food  crops,  is  chiefly  historical,  but  for  the  minor  crops 
they  constitute  in  countries  which  make  no  estimates  respecting*such 
crops  the  only  existing  official  data.  As  has  been  previously  stated, 
the  annual  estimates  made  by  the  crop-reporting  systems  abroad  are 
seldom  adjusted  to  census  figures. 

Other  valuable  sources  of  information  on  foreign  crop  statistics 
are  the  volummous  reports  made  to  the  Department  of  Commerce 
and  published  under  the  title  of  ' ‘ Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Keports.” 
Beports  similar  in  character,  but  published  less  frequently,  ai*e 
made  by  the  consuls  of  the  Imited  Kingdom,  France,  Germany, 
Austria,  and  other  nations  to  their  respective  home  governments. 
These  reports — all  of  vdiich  are  on  file  in  the  bureau  library — contain, 
among  other  data,  statistical  information  often  not  to  be  found  in 
the  official  publications  of  the  countries  to  which  the  respective 
consuls  are  accredited — information  which,  though  it  may  not  have 
the  stamp  of  official  authority,  often  constitutes  the  latest  or  perhaps 
the  only  data  extant  upon  a given  subject.  In  a recent  report  of  a 
Hungarian  consul,  for  instance,  appeared  an  estimate  of  the  v/heat 
crop  of  Brazil,  a country  for  which  neither  official  nor ‘unofficial  esti- 
mates have  been  heretofore  available.  For  countries  which  have 
no  official  crop-reporting  systems  or  for  which  no  recent  census  figures 
are  available,  the  consular  reports  constitute  a prime  authority. 

The  daily,  weekly,  and  monthly  trade  and  agricultural  journals 
of  the  various  countries  are  also  fruitful  sources  of  statistical  mfor- 
mation,  especially  respecting  current  market  conditions,  trade  move- 
ments, etc.  A few  of  them — notably  the  Tunes  of  London,  the 


50 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  581. 


Marche  FraBpaise  of  Paris,  and  the  Journal  of  Commerce  and  Industry 
of  St.  Petersburg — make  and  publish  detailed  annual  estimates 
respecting  the  cereal  crops  of  their  respective  countries  which,  in 
some  quarters  and  on  some  occasions,  meet  with  as  much  or  more 
faith  than  do  the  official  estimates.  A feature  of.some  of  the  great 
commercial  journals,  such  as  those  usually  referred  to  as  Broom- 
halls, Beerbohms,’’  and  Dornbusch,”  is  the  publication  of  a 
compilation  each  autumn  or  early  winter,  giving  the  world’s  wheat 
crop  of  the  current  year  by  countries  of  production.  These,  of 
course,  antedate  all  oflicial  compilations  on  this  subject,  and, 
though  not  suitable  for  permanent  record,  give  the  earliest  mdica- 
tion  of  the  probable  supply  as  compared  with  previous  years. 

Foreign  crop  statistics,  it  may  be  added,  when  considered  with  refer- 
ence to  single  countries  separately,  present  a valuable  record  of  the 
agricultural  resources  of  each,  but  when  the  attempt  is  made  to 
consider  them  totally  as  a unit,  a lack  of  uniformity  in  crop-reporting 
systems,  and  differences  in  the  methods  of  expressing  the  results, 
detract  in  some  cases  from  their  value.  A striking  illustration  is 
found  in  the  statistical  statements  of  various  countries  resj^ecting  the 
condition  of  the  crops  during  the  growing  season.  In  the  crop  report- 
ing system  of  England  an  average  condition  is  expressed  by  100,  and 
variations  from  the  average  by  proportionate  figures  above  or  below 
100.  In  Sweden  an  excellent  condition  is  expressed  by  5;  variations 
from  that  standard  are  expressed  on  a descending  scale  from  4.9  to  1. 
In  Germany  an  exactly  opposite  significance  is  given  to  the  same 
figures,  excellent  being  expressed  by  1,  good  by  2,  fair  by  3,  and  so 
on.  In  some  other  countries  the  condition  reports  are  expressed  in 
descriptive  terms,  i.  e.,  as  excellent,  good,  fair,  etc.  The  lack  of 
uniformity,  as  illustrated  by  this  example,  detracts  to  some  extent 
from  the  value  of  comparisons  in  other  instances.  The  defect  has 
attracted  widespread  attention.  For  many  years  the  International 
Statistical  Institute  has  at  each  of  its  triennial  sessions  passed  resolu- 
tions advocating  a concerted  movement  among  the  nations  for  uni- 
formity. Many  commercial  and  agricultural  organizations  have 
repeatedly  indorsed  the  proposed  movement,  but  having  no  power 
to  put  their  desires  into  execution  nothing  tangible  has  ever  been 
effected.  The  establishment  in  1908  of  an  International  Institute  of 
Agriculture  at  Rome,  where  are  assembled  in  continuous  work  dele- 
gates from  all  the  great  agricultural  countries  of  the  world,  has  now 
created  a center  from  which,  it  is  expected,  powerful  influences  will 
constantly  be  exerted  for  improvement  of  crop-reporting  services, 
for  their  extension  to  all  countries,  for  uniformity  of  statistical  state- 
ments, and  for  a general  unification  of  methods  of  statistical  work 
throughout  the  world. 


US.DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Forest  Service,  Henry  S.  Graves,  Forester. 

In  cooperation  with  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  W.  A.  Taylor,  Chief, 
May  16,  1914. 


USES  FOR  CHESTNUT  TIMBER  KILLED  BY  THE 

BARK  DISEASE. 


By  J.  Cb  Nellis,  Forest  Examiner,  Forest  Service. 

THE  CHESTNUT  BARK  DISEASE. 

Most  of  the  chestnut  timber  north  of  the  Potomac  River  has  been 
ittacked  and  much  of  it  killed  by  the  bark  disease,  which  is  now 
ipreading  to  Virginia  and  West  Virginia.  To  prevent  the  further 
;pread  of  the  disease  the  Department  of  Agriculture  recommends 
he  destruction  of  advance  infections.^  The  wood  of  diseased  trees 
nay  safely  be  used  for  any  jDurpose.  The  problem  of  utilizing  tim- 
)er  cut  to  destroy  advance  infections,  however,  is  simple  as  com- 
)ared  with  using  the  large  amount  of  dead  standing  timber  where 
he  chestnut  has  been  diseased  for  several  years.  To  help  the 
-wner  of  diseased  trees  to  solve  this  larger  problem  is  the  purpose  of 
his  bulletin. 2 

Wdien  the  spores  of  the  fungus  which  causes  the  disease  are  carried 
y the  wind  or  other  agency  into  any  wound  on  the  trunk  or  Umb  of 
, chestnut  tree,  they  germinate  and  cause  a spreading  canker  which 
irdles  the  part  attacked  and  eventually  kills  the  tree.  The  disease 
oes  not  injure  the  wood;  rotten  wood  is  caused  by  sap  rots,  heart 
Dts,  and  insects.  Samples  of  wood  from  diseased  trees  examined 
mder  the  microscope  in  the  Forest  Service  showed  no  abnormal 
tructure  which  could  be  attributed  directly  to  the  bark  disease, 
xcept  that  the  annual  rings  of  growth  developed  after  the  trees 
)ecame  infected  were  narrower  than  those  foTmed  before"* infection, 
he  result  of  the  partial  girdling  of  the  tree  each  year  by  the  fungus. 
<Mngous  growth  was  found  to  penetrate  from  two  to  four  of  The  outer 

1 The  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  recommends  that  advance  infections  be  destroyed  by  felling  the  trees 
d burning  the  bark  and  brush  over  the  stump,  so  that  the  surface  of  the  latter  is  completely  charred, 
what  is  much  better,  creosoting  the  surface  of  the  stump  and  burning  the  bark  and  brush  in  piles. 

' For  detailed  information  as  to  the  disease  and  methods  of  control,  see  Department  of  Agriculture  Year- 
'Ok  Separate  598. 

Note.— This  bulletin  contains  important  information  as  to  the  utilization  that  may  be  made  of  chest- 
iut  timber  killed  by  the  bark  disease  and  should  be  especially  valuable  to  woodlot  owners  throughout 
the  region  affected. 

34908°— 14 1 


2 


farmers'  bulletin  582. 


rings  of  trees  which  had  been  infected  for  some  time,  hut  to  cause  no 
injury  that  lessens  the  value  of  the  wood.  Discoloration  of  the  wood 
next  to  the  bark  is  probably  due  to  the  breaking  down  of  food  mate- 
rial by  the  fungus  in  a few  cells  of  the  outer  sapwood. 

STRENGTH  AND  DURABILITY  OF  DISEASE-KILLED  TIMBER. 

Preliminary  strength  tests  conducted  by  the  Forest  Service  upon 
chestnut  killed  by  the  bark  disease  indicated  that  sound  wood  from 
dead  trees  is  fully  as  strong  as  wood  from  healthy  trees.  Disease- 
killed  chestnut  seasoned  on  the  stump  is  probably  more  durable  than 
green-cut  chestnut  used  unseasoned,  owing  to  the  former’s  comparative 
dryness.  In  1910  a railroad  in  Pennsylvania  rejected  a shipment  of 
chestnut  ties  from  Long  Island  because  they  were  cut  from  diseased 
trees.  The  ties  were  left  piled  on  the  right  of  way  for  three  years, 
but  upon  reinspection  in  1913  were  found  to  be  so  sound  that  they 
were  finally  accepted. 

DETERIORATION. 

The  foregoing  statements  regarding  the  strength  of  timber  from 
disease-killed  chestnut  trees  refer  only  to  sound  trees  which  had  not 
been  injured  by  insects,  decay,  or  checking.  In  the  spring  of  1913 
the  Forest  Service  carried  on  a careful  investigation  of  the  deterioration 
of  chestnut  killed  by  the  bark  disease.  The  number  of  years  since 
the  death  of  the  tree  was  determined  by  the  age  of  the  oldest  sprout 
at  the  root  collar,  since  in  most  cases  sprouts  do  not  appear  on  the 
root  collar  before  the  tree  dies.  The  study  considered  only  the  mer- 
chantable part  of  the  tree. 

Dr.  Hopkins,  in  charge  Forest  Insect  Investigations  in  the  Bureau 
of  Entomology,  states  that  ^Hhere  is  great  variation  in  the  amount  of 
insect  damage  to  the  wood  of  chestnut  trees  killed  by  the  bark  dis- 
ease, but  as  a rule  it  is  not  serious.  The  greatest  damage  to  the 
wood  by  insects  is  generally  caused  by  the  chestnut  timber  worm 
before  the  trees  are  attacked  or  kiUed  by  the  disease,  but  this  insect 
may  continue  its  work  for  many  years  after  the  trees  die.”  ^ 

Sap  rot  is  not  found,  as  a rule,  until  two  years  after  death,  when 
small  spots  appear  on  the  trunk.  These  spots  spread  until  at  four 
years  after  death  aU  of  the  sapwood  on  the  trunk  is  rotted.  During 
the  fifth  year  the  bark  usually  falls  from  the  trunk,  and  the  rotted 
sapwood,  wliich  is  full  of  insect  burrows,  dries  out  and  starts  to  peel 
off.  On  Long  Island  the  sapwood  was  off  of  all  trees  dead  seven 
years.  The  heartwood  was  hard  and  sound,  but  aU  trees  under  18 
inches  in  diameter  were  so  badly  checked  as  to  be  unmerchantable. 
Checking  starts  in  small  trees  in  the  second  year,  and  in  all  trees  is 
rapid  from  the  fifth  year  on. 

• The  BuFean  of  Entomology  p:i.^kfng  S'  fsofifprekPhsiv^  Study  of  insects  affecting  the  chestnut  an(^ 
their  relation  to  the  bark  disease, 


USES  FOR  CHESTNUT  TIMBER  KILLED  BY  BARK  DISEASE. 


3 


MERCHANTABILITY. 

.Chestnut  logs,  poles,  ties,  and  other  products  which  are  sound  at 
the  time  of  inspection  should  not  be  rejected  because  they  come  from 
trees  infected  with  or  killed  by  the  bark  disease.  Nor  are  disease 
cankers  or  lesions  on  the  wood  sufficient  reason  for  rejecting  material. 
As  already  pointed  out,  the  disease  itself  does  not  affect  the  sound- 
ness or  strength  of  the  timber,  but  merely  kills  the  tree  by  girdling 
the  bark.  After  the  death  of  the  tree,  of  course,  checking  and  brit- 
tleness are  likely  to  follow  the  drying  out  of  the  wood. 

One  of  the  largest  pole-buying  companies  accepts  poles  cut  from 
dead  trees,  provided  there  is  no  sap  rot  and  the  poles  conform  to 
specifications.  A large  railroad  company  accepts  ties  cut  from  dead 
chestnut,  provided  the  wood  is  sound  and  does  not  show  signs  of 
decay  or  rot  when  inspected.  Another  large  railroad  has  found  that 
ties  or  poles  cut  from  dead  chestnut  trees  in  which  the  sapwood  has 
not  rotted  give  satisfactory  service. 

On  Long  Island  practically  all  of  the  dead  chestnut  found  on  the 
larger  estates  has  been  completely  utilized,  since  the  island  offers 
excellent  markets  for  chestnut  dimension  stuff,  lumber,  poles,  and 
ties.  In  some  cases  the  tops  and  limbs  left  after  logging  have  been  cut 
into  kindling  for  the  city  markets.  In  southwestern  Connecticut  sound 
dead  chestnut  sells  as  well  for  most  purposes  as  live  timber.  MiU- 
men  there  usually  saw  trees  that  are  10  inches  in  diameter  breast- 
high  and  less  into  fence  posts  and  small  dimensions,  trees  from  10  to 
18  inches  diameter  into  ties  and  plank,  and  trees  over  18  inches 
diameter  into  large  dimension  material  with  ties  as  a secondary 
product.  It  has  been  found  that  trees  up  to  10  inches  diameter  can 
be  sawed  into  merchantable  products  after  they  have  been  dead  four 
years,  and  trees  from  10  to  18  inches  diameter  can  be  utihzed  profit- 
ably after  they  have  been  dead  five  years,  while  trees  over  18  inches 
in  diameter  are  merchantable  six  years  after  death.  Slabs  obtained 
in  sawing  dead  logs  are  usually  a complete  loss  because  of  sap  rot  and 
checking.  Round  fence  posts  may  be  cut  from  trees  from  6 to  10 
inches  in  diameter  breasthigh  and  from  the  tops  of  the  larger  trees. 
They  must  not  show  sap  rot  to  be  accepted  by  railway  or  highway 
contractors.  Sap-rotted  posts  should  be  considered  satisfactory  for 
farm  use,  however,  since  the  sapwood  is  usually  thin  and  the  heart- 
wood  is  almost  invariably  sound.  The  market  for  cordwood  from 
dead  trees  is  somewhat  uncertain.  Brass  factories  require  wood  cut 
from  sound  timber,  with  the  bark  tight  and  the  sap  hard  and  firm. 
Such  wood  comes  from  trees  that  have  been  dead  less  than  a year. 
Limekilns  can  use  wood  in  a poorer  condition,  and  may  accept  wood 
from  trees  dead  two  or  three  years,  provided  it  is  sound.  Brick 
companies  prefer  live  wood,  but  in  some  cases  may  accept  a small 
amount  of  dead  material. 


4 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  582. 
WHEN  TO  CUT  DISEASED  TREES. 


Although  disease-killed  chestnut  does  not  show  detiuioration  unt-il 
two  years  after  death,  infected  trees  should  be  cut  and  utihzed  as 
soon  as  possible  after  they  are  attacked.  Diseased  trees  always  die 
sooner  or  later  unless  treated;  and  actual  death  may  not  be  noticed 
until  too  late  in  the  spring  to  allow  cutting  before  the  next  year. 
Dead  timber  is  hard  to  chop  and  saw,  and  may  break  in  felling. 
Trees  often  rot  in  the  tops  first,  and  poles  cut  from  such  trees  may 
show  decay  in  the  top  end.  Moreover,  diseased  timber  is  still  hve 
timber  and  can  be  sold  as  such.  Dead  timber,  even  though  sound, 
always  presents  difficulties  in  felhng,  manufacturing,  and  marketing. 

Woodlot  owners  who  can  not  cut  their  diseased  chestnut  before  it 
dies  should  remove  it  within  two  years  after  death,  before  insect 
injury,  decay,  and  checking  have  started.  If  poles  are  to  be  the 
product,  however,  the  tree  should  be  cut  while  yet  alive,  because  of 
the  likehhood  of  dead  timber  being  broken  in  felling  or  while  being 
loaded  on  cars.  Poles  cut  from  live  trees  are  much  more  likely  to 
be  accepted  by  dealers  and  pole-using  companies  than  poles  cut  from 
dead  trees.  However,  poles  cut  from  dead  trees  that  are  perfectly 
sound,  especially  in  the  sap,  are  as  good  as  poles  cut  green  and  sea- 
soned in  piles.  A pole  seasoned  on  the  stump  is  as  good  as  one 
seasoned  in  a pile,  and  therefore  the  only  reason  for  not  cutting 
sound  dead  timber  for  poles  is  the  probable  breakage  in  felling 
and  transportation  due  to  the  brittleness  of  the  seasoned  timber. 
Dead  timber  is  satisfactory  for  round  fence  posts  and  hewed  ties, 
if  there  is  no  sap  rot.  For  sawed  products  (lumber,  dimension 
stuff,  sawed  ties,  switch  timbers,  sawed  fence  posts,  shingles,  and 
slack  staves  and  heading)  sap  wood  injury  may  be  disregarded, 
as'  it  will  slab  off.  However,  though  heartwood  is  usually  sound 
for  six  years  or  more  after  the  death  of  the  tree,  it  checks  badly  after 
the  second  year.  Trees  intended  for  sawed  products  in  which 
checking  is  a defect  should  therefore  be  cut  within  two  years  after 
death.  Timber  which  is  too  badly  checked  to  be  profitably  manu- 
factured into  sawed  products  should  be  cut  for  cordwood. 

Should  woodlot  owners  wish  to  cut  timber  for  which  there  is  no 
immediate  market,  the  following  methods  of  storage  are  recommended : 

Poles  should  be  peeled  and  rolled  upon  skidways,  at  least  feet 
high,  built  over  bare  ground,  in  situations  exposed  to  sun  and  wind. 
There  should  be  but  one  layer  of  poles  upon  each  skidway.  Ties 
should  be  hauled  to  a railroad  right  of  way  and  piled  according  to  the 
railroad’s  specifications.  In  no  case  should  more  than  two  ties  in  a 
pile  come  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  the  piles  should  be  open 
enough  to  allow  free  circulation  of  air.  The  top  layer  of  ties  should 
form  a slanting  roof  to  shed  water.  Lumber  and  dimension  stuff 


5 


nSES  FOR  OUESTNlT'r  TIMBER  KILLED  BY  BARK  DISEASE. 


i 

r ' \ 

\:m 

) V 

} i 

1 

r'IJ 

Fig.  1.— Dead  chestnut  trees  on  Long  Island.  These  trees  should  have  been  cut  before  the  bark 
fell  off  and  deterioration  started. 


6 


FAKMERS^  BULLETIN  582. 


should  be  piled  under  a shed  with  open  sides  to  allow  free  circulation 
of  air;  piles  in  the  open  should  have  temporary  roofs  made  of  boards. 
The  piles  should  be  on  skids,  with  several  sticks  between  the  layers  of 
boards  and  dimensions.  Cordwood  should  not  be  piled  in  the  woods, 
but  where  it  will  be  exposed  to  sun  and  wind.  The  piles  should  be 
built  loosely  and  on  well-drained  ground.  Two  long  sticks  under  each 
pile  will  prevent  decay  in  the  lower  layers. 

HOW  TO  MANUFACTURE  AND  MARKET  CHESTNUT  PRODUCTS. 

Chestnut  wood  is  hght  in  weight,  soft,  not  strong,  coarse  grained, 
stiff  but  brittle,  nonelastic,  easily  seasoned  but  hkely  to  check  and 
warp,  easily  split,  easy  to  work,  and  very  durable  in  contact  with  the 
soil.  It  is  suitable  for  poles,  lumber,  ties,  slack  cooperage,  tannin- 
extract  wood,  mine  timbers,  shingles,  fence  posts  and  rails,  piles, 
veneer,  and  fuel,  but  it  can  not  profitably  be  used  for  tight  cooperage, 
distillation,  or  excelsior.  In  deciding  what  product  to  manufacture 
from  his  stand  the  farmer  should  first  consider  his  own  needs  for 
summer  fuel,  fence  posts  and  rails,  split  sliingles,  barns  and  sheds,  or 
even  interior  finish  for  a new  house.  Chestnut  is  weU  suited  for  barn 
frames,  bridges,  and  general  construction  work  because  it  is  durable, 
and  has  practically  the  same  strength  as  white  pine,  spruce,  and 
hemlock.  It  will  also  serve  for  sheathing  for  barns  and  sheds.  The 
wood  has  an  attractive  figure  and  takes  finish  well,  wliich  fits  it  for 
interior  and  cabinet  work.  It  is  hard  enough  for  flooring,  and  is  used 
to  some  extent  for  doors  and  for  door  and  window  frames.  If  the 
woodlot  owner  has  more  dead  timber  than  he  can  use  himself  or 
dispose  of  to  his  neighbors  he  should  consider  making  one  or  more 
of  the  following  products  to  be  sold  to  dealers,  railroads,  and  manu- 
facturing plants:  Poles,  saw  logs,  hewed  ties,  slack-cooperage  bolts, 
tannin-extract  cordwood,  mine  timbers,  and  cordwood  for  brick- 
yards, limekilns,  brass  factories,  iron  foundries,  etc.  Any  of  these 
products  can  be  made  with  the  tools  kept  on  every  farm. 

The  manufacture  of  lumber  on  the  ground  requires  a portable 
sawmill.  Portable  shingle  and  stave  mills  can  also  be  obtained. 
Such  an  outfit  would  only  be  warranted  if  there  was  enough  timber 
to  insure  several  years’  operation.  Owners  of  portable  mills,  however, 
often  buy  timber  when  there  is  enough  to  warrant  a set-up.  More- 
over, there  may  be  a custom  sawmiU  or  one  operated  in  connection 
with  a lumber  yard  or  woodworking  plant  in  the  neighborhood  or  in 
a near-by  town.  Such  miUs,  besides  doing  custom  work,  often  buy 
logs  by  the  wagonload.  Stave,  heading,  and  shingle  miUs  may  often 
furnish  a market  for  logs. 


USES  FOR  CHESTNUT  TIMBER  KILLED  BY  BARK  DISEASE.  7 

RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  CHESTNUT  PRODUCTS. 

Table  1 will  give  the  woodlot  owner  an  idea  of  the  value  of  his 
chestnut  timber  and  the  relative  value  of  the  various  products.  The 
values  shown  are  average  ones  for  manufactured  material  f.  o.  b.  cars 
or  dehvered  at  the  railroad  right  of  way.  To  learn  the  value  of  his 
stumpage,  the  farmer  must  deduct  the  cost  of  cutting,  sawing,  and 
hauling  from  these  values.  Average  values  for  chestnut  products, 
other  than  poles,  lumber,  ties,  and  cordwood,  are  given  later  in  the 
bulletin. 

Table  1. — Relative  value  of  chestnut  trees  of  different  sizes  cut  into  poles,  lumber,  ties, 

and  cordwood. 

(Compiled  from  Tables  2,  3,  i,  and  5.) 


Size  of  tree. 

Value  of  products. 

Diameter 

breast- 

high. 

Height. 

Poles 

(7-inch  top), 
25-foot,  at  $1.50; 
30-foot,  at  $2.25; 
35-foot,  at  $3.25; 
40-foot,  at  $4.00; 
45-foot,  at  $5.00; 
50-foot,  at  $6.50; 
5.5-foot,  at  $8.00; 
60-foot,  at  $10.00; 

Lumber  at 
$20  per  M 
or  $0.02  per 
board  foot. 

8 feet  by  6 
inches  by  8 
inches 
sawed  ties, 
at  $0.50. 

Cordwood, 
at  $3.60 
per  cord 
or  $0.04 
per  cubic 
foot.i 

Inches. 

Feet. 

4 

50 

$0.08 

5 ' 

50 

.13 

0 ! 

50 

• 

. 18 

0 1 

bO 

.22 

50 

.25 

7 

60 

.29 

8 

50 

.32 

8 

60 

.38 

8 

70 

.44 

9 

50 

$0.20 

.40 

9 

60 

.30 

.47 

9 

70 

.44 

.54 

10 

50 

.52 

$0.50 

.50 

10 

60 

.64 

.50 

.58 

10 

70 

.80 

.50 

.66 

10 

80 

.96 

.50 

.71 

10 

90 

1.12 

1.50 

. 76 

11 

50 

.84 

.50 

.61 

11 

60 

1.00 

.50 

.72 

11 

70 

1.16 

1.00 

.83 

11 

80 

1.38 

1.00 

.90 

; 

90 

1.60 

2.00 

.97 

12 

50 

1.16 

1.00 

.74 

12 

60 

1.36 

1.00 

.86 

12 

70 

1.56 

1.50 

1.00 

12 

80 

' 1.84 

1.50 

1.10 

12 

90 

2. 14 

2.00 

1.20 

13 

50 

$1. 50 

1.48 

1.50 

.87 

13 

60 

1.50 

1.74 

1.50 

1.01 

13 

70 

1.50 

2.00 

1.50 

1.16 

13 

80 

1.50 

2. 32 

2.00 

1.28 

13 

90 

1.50 

2.66 

2.50 

1.41 

14 

50 

2.25 

1.84 

1.50 

1.00 

14 

60 

2. 25 

2.14 

1.50 

1.17 

14 

70 

2.25 

2. 44 

2.50 

1.35 

14 

80 

2. 25 

2.82 

2. 50 

1.51 

14 

90 

2. 25 

3.20 

4.00 

1.65 

1 An  average  cord  contains  90  stacked  cubic  feet. 


8 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  582, 


Table  1. — Relative  value  of  chestnut  trees  of  different  sizes  cut  into  'poles,  lumber,  ties, 

and  cordwood — Continued . 


Size  of  tree. 

Value  of  products. 

Diameter 

breast- 

high. 

Height. 

Poles 

(7-inch  top), 
25-foot,  at  $1.50; 
30-foot,  at  $2.25; 
35-foot,  at  $3.25; 
40-foot,  at  $4.00; 
45-foot,  at  $5.00; 
50-foot,  at  $6.50; 
55-foot,  at  $8.00; 
60-foot,  at  $10.00; 

Lumber  at 
$20  per  M 
or  $0.02  per 
board  foot. 

8 feet  by  6 
inches  by  8 
inches 
sawed  ties, 
at  .10.50. 

Cordwood, 
at  $3.60 
per  cord 
or  .$0.04 
per  cubic 
foot.i 

Inches. 

15 

Feet. 

50 

.$3.  25 

$2.20 

.$2. 50 

$1.15 

15 

. 60 

3. 25 

2.54 

2. 50 

1.34 

15 

70 

3. 25 

2. 94 

2.50 

1.55 

15 

80 

3.25 

3.36 

3.00 

1.74 

15 

90 

3.  25 

3.80 

4.50 

1.92 

16 

50 

2.58 

3. 00 

1.30 

16 

60 

3.00 

3.00 

1.52 

16 

70 

4.00 

3.44 

3.50 

1.76 

16 

80 

4. 00 

3.92 

3.50 

1.98 

16 

90 

4. 00 

4.44 

4.50 

2.  20 

17 

60 

3. 48 

3.00 

1.71 

17 

70 

4. 00 

4.00 

4.00 

1.98 

17 

80 

5.00 

4.52 

4.00 

2.  24 

17 

90 

5.00 

5.10 

5.00 

2.52 

18 

60 

3.96 

3.50 

1.90 

18 

70 

5.00 

4.54 

4.00 

2.  22 

18 

80 

6.  50 

5.14 

4.50 

2.52 

18 

90 

6.  50 

5.82 

5.50 

2.  82 

19 

60 

4.46 

3.  .50 

2.06 

19 

70 

5.14 

4.00 

2.46 

19 

80 

5.84 

5.00 

2.80 

19 

90 

8.00 

6.56 

6.00 

3.16 

20 

60 

5.00 

4.00 

2.  .34 

20 

70 

5.76 

5.00 

2.  74 

20 

80 

6.54 

5.50 

3.12 

20 

90 

10. 00 

7.36 

6. 50 

3.52 

21 

60 

5.52 

4.50 

2.60 

21 

70 

6.36 

5.00 

3.02 

21 

80 

1 7.26 

5.50 

3.44 

21 

90 

8.18 

7.00 

3.88 

22 

60 

6.10 

5.50 

2.  84 

22 

70 

7.00 

5.50 

3.32 

22 

80 

8. 00 

7.00 

3.80 

22 

90 

9.02 

8.50 

4.26 

2.3 

60 

6. 66 

6. 00 

3. 12 

23 

70 

7.  70 

6. 00 

3.64 

23 

80 

8.80 

7.00 

4.16 

23 

90 

9.86 

8.50 

4.68 

24 

60 

7.  26 

6.00  , 

3.42 

24 

70 

8.  40 

6.50 

3.98 

24 

80 

9.58 

7.50 

4.56 

24 

90 

10.  76 

9.50 

5.12 

25 

60 

7.92 

7. 50 

3.72 

25 

70 

9.14 

7. 50 

4.34 

25 

80 

10.40 

9. 00 

4.96 

25 

90 

11.66 

10.50 

5.60 

1 An  average  cord  contains  90  stacked  cubic  feet. 

Cordwood  values  include  whole  trunk  and  top  wood,  with  bark,  up  to  a minimum  diameter  of  2 inches. 

Pole,  lumber,  and  tie  values  do  not  include  top  wood,  which,  when  a tree  is  cut  into  poles,  lumber,  or 
ties,  will  usually  yield  20  cents,  to  50  cents,  worth  of  cordwood. 

The  values  in  Table  1 were  compiled  from  volume  tables  computed 
from  measurements  of  a large  number  of  trees  grown  on  medium 
quality  chestnut  soils.  Volume  tables  express  the  average  content, 


USES  FOR  CHESTNUT  TIMBER  KILLED  BY  BARK  DISEASE. 


9 


and  should  not  be  applied  to  individual  trees.  Similarly,  Table  1 
expresses  the  average  value  of  a large  number  of  trees,  and  will  not 
give  the  value  of  single  trees.  An  example  of  the  use  of  the  table 
is  as  follows:  Suppose  a woodlot  contains  100  chestnut  trees  of  the 
same  size,  14  inches  diameter  breasthigh,  and  60  feet  high,  all  straight 
and  clear  for  at  least  32  feet  up.  Tables  1 to  5 give  the  following 
products  ami  their  values  for  such  a stand: 

100  30-foot  poles,  worth  $300  (j)lus  the  value  of  cord  wood  in  top). 

10,700  board  feet  of  lumber,  worth  $214  (plus  the  value  of  cord  wood  in  top). 

300  ties,  worth  $150  (plus  the  value  of  cordwood  in  top). 

32|  cords  of  wood,  worth  $117. 

Assuming  the  costs  of  cutting  and  manufacturing  to  be: 


Poles.  30  cents  each. 

Lumber $7  a thousand  board  feet, 

Hewn  ties 12^  cents  each, 

Cordwood $1  per  cord. 


and  assuming,  also,  a team  wage  rate  of  $5  per  day,  a daily  hauling 
capacity  of  two  trips,  and  an  average  load  as  six  30-foot  poles,  1 ,000 
feet  of  lumber,  33  ties,  or  1 i cords  of  wood,  the  cost  of  cutting,  manu- 
facturing, and  hauling  the  different  products  would  be  as  follows: 

100  30-foot  poles .* $72,  leaving  a return  of  $153. 

10,700  board  feet  of  lumber $102,  leaving  a return  of  $112. 

300  ties $60,  leaving  a return  of  $90. 

32|  cords  of  wood $87,  leaving  a return  of  $30. 

If  the  timber  owner  does  the  cutting  and  hauling  himself,  the  cost 
of  production  represents  the  labor  of  himself  and  team,  and  the 
return  includes  the  value  of  the  stump  age  and  a profit  of  about  20 
per  cent.  A discussion  of  the  principal  chestnut  products  follows: 

POLES. 

About  one-fifth  of  all  the  telegraph,  telephone,  and  electric  trans- 
mission poles  used  in  the  United  States  are  chestnut.  Pole  logging 
is  much  the  simplest  and  cheapest  form  of  exploitation  per  unit  of 
volume.  It  consists  simply  in  felling  the  tree,  sawing  off  the  top  at 
an  inside  bark  diameter  of  7 or  8'inches,  trimming  the  branches  close, 
and  peeling.  The  cost  of  this  is  usually  figured  at  1 cent  per  foot  in 
length  for  poles  from  25  to  35  feet  long,  and  35  cents  apiece  for  poles 
from  35  to  50  feet  long.  Pole  cutting  is  most  expensive  in  winter, 
when  peeling  is  difficult.  Contract  logging  rates  are  often  35  cents  per 
pole  in  winter  and  25  cents  in  summer.  Some  companies,  however, 
accept  only  winter-cut  poles,  since  the  warm  temperature  and  the 
greater  amount  of  moisture  in  the  outer  layers  of  sap  wood  during 
summer  favor  attack  by  wood-rotting  fungi. ^ 

Chestnut  poles  may  be  marketed  through  the  hundreds  of  pole 
dealers  scattered  throughout  the  region  of  the  bark  disease,  or  they 

1 From  Forest  Service  Bui.  96,  “ Second-Growth  Hardwoods  in  Connecticut.” 

34908°— 14 -2 


10  FARMERS^  BULLETIN  582. 

may  be  sold  to  some  one  of  the  thousand  telephone,  electric  light^ 
and  trolley  companies  in  the  same  region,  or  to  buyers  for  the  large 
telegraph  and  telephone  companies  and  the  railroads.  It  is  best 
whenever  possible  to  get  in  touch  with  a local  company. 

Table  2 shows  the  dimensions  of  poles  which  may  be  obtained 
from  trees  of  different  sizes,  and  is  followed  by  a set  of  chestnut- 
pole  specifications,  under  which  a large  part  of  the  telephone  and  tele- 
graph poles  are  purchased.  Many  telephone,  electric  light,  power, 
and  traction  companies,  and  railroads  use  their  own  specifications. 


Fig.  2. — Chestnut  poles,  showing  proportions  and  straightness  required. 

Telephone  companies  carrying  only  a few  wires  often  accept  smalJ 
poles.  A set  of  average  prices  paid  by  the  Western  Electric  Co., 
f.  o.  b.  cars,  is  also  shown. 

Table  2. — Length  of  poles  (7-inch  top)  obtainable  from  chestnut  trees  of  different  sizesd 


1 )iameter 
breast - 
high. 

Height  of  tree- 

—feet. 

Figures 
compiled 
from  meas- 
urements 
of  following 
number  of 
trees. 

.50 

6C 

70 

80 

90 

Length  of  poles. 

Inches. 

Feel . 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Trees. 

13 

25 

25 

25 

25 

25 

11 

14 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

17 

15 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

6 

16 

40 

40 

40 

14 

17 

40 

45 

45 

6 

18 

45 

50 

50 

11 

19 

55 

6 

20 

60 

4 

» From  Forest  Service  Bui.  96,  “Second-Growth  Hardwoods  in  Connecticut.” 


USES  FOR  CHESTNUT  TIMBER  KILLED  BY  BARK  DISEASE.  11 
Western  Electric  Co. 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CHESTNUT  POLES. 

All  poles  shall  be  of  sound,  live,  white  chestnut,  squared  at  both  ends,  reasonably 
straight,  well  proportioned  from  butt  to  top,  peeled,  and  knots  trimmed  to  the  surface 
of  the  pole. 

Tlie  dimensions  of  the  poles  shall  be  according  to  the  following  table,  the  *‘top” 
measurement  being  the  circumference  at  the  top  of  the  pole,  the  “butt”  circumfer- 
ence being  G feet  from  the  butt. 

Dimensions  of  poles. 


Class  “ 

{ Class  “C.” 

1 

6 feet 

6 feet 

Leij^th. 

Top. 

from 

Length. 

Top. 

from 

butt. 

butt. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Feet. 

Inches 

Inches. 

25 

24 

36 

20 

20 

27 

30 

24 

40 

25 

20 

30 

35 

24 

43 

30 

20 

33 

■10 

24 

45 

35 

20 

36 

•15 

24 

48 

40 

20 

40 

50 

24 

51 

45 

20 

48 

55 

22 

54 

50 

20 

46 

eo 

22 

57 

55 

20 

49 

65 

22 

60 

70 

22 

63 

75 

22 

66 

Class  “ D. 

20 

20 

24 

25 

20 

27 

Class  “ B. 

30 

20 

31 

35 

40 

20 

20 

35 

39 

20 

25 

22 

22 

31 

33 

45 

50 

20 

20 

43 

46 

30 

22 

36 

35 

22 

40 

Class  “E. 

•10 

22 

43 

45 

22 

47 

50 

22 

50 

20 

15-1 

23 

55 

22 

53 

25 

15| 

26 

60 

22 

56 

30 

154 

29 

65 

22 

59 

35 

20 

34 

70 

22 

62 

40 

20 

38 

75 

22 

65 

45 

20 

42 

50 

20 

46 

Prices  f.  o.  b.  cars  paid  by  the  Western  Electric  Co.  for  poles  of 
average  size  are  as  follows.  Poles  larger  than  the  average  bring 
better  prices;  poles  smaller  bring  less: 


20-foot  poles 
25-foot  poles 
30-foot  poles 
35-foot  poles 


$0.  80-$l.  25 
1.00-  1.50 

1.  65-  2.  25 

2.  25-  3.  25 


40-foot  poles 
45-foot  poles 
50-foot  poles 
55-foot  poles 


$3.  25-$4.  00 

4.  25-  5.  00 

5.  00-  6.  50 

6.  00-  8.  00 


The  butt  circumference  of  poles  obtainable  from  standing  trees 
may  be  ascertained  by  measuring  the  tree  at  a point  as  high  above 
the  average  man’s  head  as  can  be  reached,  to  allow  for  the  stump, 
and  then  deducting  4 or  5 inches  for  bark.  Prices  for  long  poles 
may  seem  to  offer  unusual  profits  for  pole  logging,  but  long  high- 


12  FARMERS^  BULLETIN  582. 

class  poles  must  be  very  straight  and  well  proportioned,  and  can  be 
cut  only  from  very  big  trees.  Moreover;  the  market  for  such  poles 
is  limited ; the  bulk  of  purchases  of  chestnut  poles  by  all  companies 
in  1911  was  divided  according  to  length  as  follows: 


Feet. 

Under  20 $24,517 

20  to  29 298,710 

30  to  39 289,702 

40  to  49 66,421 

50  and  over 14^  439 


Total 693,489 


LUMBER. 


A large  amount  of  chestnut  is  manufaetured  into  lumber,  and 
finds  place  in  interior  finish,  musical  instruments,  furniture,  coffins, 
and  other  manufactured  articles.  Much  of  the  chestnut  used  by 
woodworking  j)lants  in  the  Northern  States  comes  from  mills  in 
Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina. 
The  reason  why  these  plants  purchase  southern  chestnut  rather  than 
northern  stock  is  because  the  southern  mills  always  grade  their  lum- 
ber, making  it  possible  for  the  manufacturer  to  obtain  the  class  of 
material  he  needs.  The  southern  mills  also  cut  large  quantities,  so 
the  supply  of  any  one  giiade  is  fairly  constarLb.  Small  mills  in  the 


Fig.  3.— Stairway  made  from  chestnut  in  house  finished  throughout  in  chestnut. 


USES  FOR  CHESTNUT  TIMBER  KILLED  BY  BARK  DISEASE.  13 


North  might  secure  more  of  this  trade  if  they  could  manufacture  the 
equivalent  of  grades  now  used  in  certain  lines.  Summaries  of  chest- 
nut grading  rules  follow. 


Hardwood  IVIanufacturers’  Association  of  the  United  States. 

Summary  of  grading  rules  for  chestnut  lumber. 


Firsts  and  seconds. 

Firsts  and  seconds,  wormy. 

I.en^ths 

8 feet  and  longer. 

8 feet  and  longer. 

Widths 

fi  inches  ana  wider. 

0 inches  and  wider. 

Defects 

Standard  defects  admitted  in  firsts: 

Up  to  8 inches  wide,  none. 

8 inches  and  over  wide,  one. 

Standard  defects  admitted  in  seconds: 

6 to  7 inches  wide,  one. 

8 to  10  inches  wide,  two. 

As  the  width  increases  defects  increase  in 
jjroportion. 

Standard  defects  admitted  in  firsts: 

Up  to  8 inches  wide,  none. 

8 inches  and  over  wide,  one. 

Standard  defects  admitted  in  seconds: 

6 to  7 inches  wide,  one. 

8 to  10  inches  wide,  two. 

As  the  width  increases  defects  increase  in 
proportion. 

In  addition  to  the  above  defects,  wormholes 
admitted  without  limit. 

No.  1 common. 

No.  1 common,  wormy. 

Lengths 

Widths 

Defects 

6 feet  and  longer. 

4 inches  and  wider. 

Must  work  66|  per  cent  or  better,  clear  face 
cuttings,  in  cuttings  which  shall  contain 
144  square  inches  or  more. 

6 feet  and  longer. 

4 inches  and  wider. 

Must  work  60§  per  cent  or  better,  clear  face 
cuttings,  in'  cuttings  which  shall  contain 
144  square  inches  or  more. 

Wormholes  admitted  in  the  cuttings  with- 
out limit. 

Sound  wormy. 

Lengths 

6 feet  and  longer. 

3 inches  and  wider. 

Will  admit  wormholes  without  limit,  but 
must  work  66§  per  cent  or  better  sound 
cuttings. 

Widths 

Defects 

No.  2 common,  worm}^ 

Lengths 

6 feet  and  longer. 

3 inches  and  wider. 

W iaths 

Defects 

Will  admit  wormholes  without  limit,  but 
must  work  at  least  50  per  cent  sound  cut- 
tings. 

No.  3 common. 

1 

1 

Lengths 

Widths 

4 feet  andr  longer. 

3 inches  and  wider. 

Will  include  all  lumber  that  does  not  come 
up  to  the  grade  of  No.  2 common,  wormy, 
that  can  be  used  for  cheap  boxing,  crating, 
sheathing,  etc. 

Defects 

EXPLANATION. 

Clear  face  cuttings. — A piece  of  lumber  free  from  all  defects  on  one  side.  The  re- 
verse side  may  contain  small  sound  defects. 

Sound  cuttings. — A piece  of  lumber  free  from  rot  and  other  defects  that  would  mate- 
rially weaken  the  strength  of  the  piece. 


14 


FAKMEKS^  BULLETIN  582. 


STANDARD  DEFECTS. 

Each  one  of  the  following  items  constitutes  a standard  defect,  any  of  which  may 
appear  in  the  board  up  to  the  limit  specified  in  the  rule  covering  its  quality: 

One  knot  inches  in  diameter. 

Two  knots  so  located  that  they  will  not  exceed  in  damage  one  standard  knot. 

Wormholes,  grub  holes,  or  rafting  ])inholes  not  exceeding  in  damage  one  standard 
knot. 

Heart,  shake,  rot,  dote,  or  any  defects  not  exceeding  in  damage  one  standard  knot. 

Bark  or  waney  edge  not  to  exceed  1 inch  in  the  average,  running  not  to  exceed 
one-third  the  length  of  the  board,  only  showing  on  one  side  and  to  be  measured. 


Fig.  4.— Chestnut  veneer,  showing  the  attractive  grain. 
National  Hardwood  Lumber  Association. 
Summary  of  chestnut  grading  rules. 


Grade. 

Length.  i 

Width. 

1 

Defects  allowed. 

Firsts 

8 feet  and  loUL’^er 

^ ()  inches  and  wider. . . . 

Ranging  from  no  defects  in  pieces  con- 
taining 4 to  9 surface  feet  to  two  de- 
fects in  pieces  containing  16  surface 
feet. 

Ranging  from  1 defect  in  pieces  con- 
taining 5 surface  feet  to  5 defects  in 
pieces  containing  20  surface  feet. 

Must  work  66§  per  cent  or  better  clear 
face. 

Must  work  50  per  cent  or  better  clear 
face. 

Must  work  25  per  cent  or  better  sound 
cuttings. 

Wormholes  admitted  without  limit, 
but  otherwise  must  work  66§  per  cent 
or  better,  sound  cuttings. 

Seconds 

do 

do 

No,  1 common. . 

No.  2 common. . 

4 feet  and  longer 

do 

4 inches  and  wider 

3 inches  and  wider 

No.  3 common. . 

do 

do 

Wormv 

f>  feet  and  longer 

4 inches  and  wider 

“Clear  face”  means  a cutting  having  the  poor  side  clear. 

A “sound  cutting”  is  one  free  from  rot,  shakes,  and  other  defects  which  materially 
impair  the  strength  of  the  piece. 


USES  FOR  CHESTNUT  TIMBER  KILLED  BY  BARK  DISEASE.  15 


STANDARD  DEFECTS. 


One  knot  11  inches  in  diameter. 

Two  knots  not  exceeding  in  extent  or  damage  1 1-inch  knot. 

Worm,  grub,  knot,  or  rafting  pinholes  not  exceeding  in  damage  one  11-inch  knot. 
Straight  split  in  end  longer  than  6 inches. 

Wane  along  one  edge  exceeding  one-sixth  the  length  of  the  board. 

A representative  scale  of  prices  received  by  mills  in  Tennessee, 
Kentucky,  and  West  Virginia  for  four  representative  grades  of 
chestnut  lumber  is  as  follows: 


Firsts  and  seconds,  1 $43  to  $45 

No.  1 common,  1 30  to  33 

Sound  wormy 15  to  18 

No.  3 common 10  to  12 


It  is  important  to  note  that  the  prices  received  by  southern  mills 
for  the  upper  grades  are  for  almost  clear  lumber,  long  and  wide. 
The  minimum  lengths  and  widths  quoted  in  the  summaries  of  grading 
rules  are  accepted  only  in  a small  proportion  of  the  shipment.  The 
usual  run  of  logs  yields  but  a small  jiroportion  of  upper  grades;  much 
of  the  southern  chestnut  is  wormy  and  below  the  grade  of  No.  1 
common. 

The  chestnut  lumber  produced  north  of  the  Potomac  River  is 
largely  used  for  local  building  and  construction  purposes.  A great 
deal,  of  course,  goes  into  sawed  ties  and  in  New  England  into  switch 
timbers.  The  following  partial  list  of  uses  for  chestnut  lumber  in 
the  Northern  States  shows  the  wide  adaptability  of  the  wood:  Barn 
timbers,  sheathing,  floors  and  stalls,  bridge  plank,  car  construction, 
crating,  docks,  framing,  floor  lining  and  outside  floors,  ice  houses, 
lath  and  tobacco  lath,  porches,  pickets,  roof  boards,  sheds,  shingles, 
ship  timbers,  sidewalk  stringers  and  plank,  siUs,  and  steps. 

Following  are  the  prices  obtained  for  chestnut  lumber  cut  in  the 
Northern  vStates  in  1911,  a representative  year: 


Average  value  of  chestnut  lumber  per  thousand  f.  o.  h.  mill,  1911 . 


State.  Value  per  thousand 

Connecticut $18.71 

Delaware 16. 7^ 

Maryland 15.  7 1 

Massachusetts 18.  28 

New  Hampshire 17.99 


state. 

Value  per  thousand. 

New  Jersey 

$17.50 

New  York 

17. 44 

Pennsylvania.  - . 

17. 25 

Pvhode  Island. . , 

18. 60 

The  cost  of  logging  and  sawing  chestnut  varies.  For  a portable 
miU  operating  in  the  woods  the  following  costs  are  approximate: 

Per  thousand. 


Cutting $1.25 

Skidding 1.75 

Sawing  and  piling 4.  00 


7.  00 

To  obtain  the  total  cost  of  lumber,  the  value  of  stumpage,  and  the 
cost  of  hauling  the  lumber,  loading  it  on  cars,  etc.,  must  be  added  to 
the  above. 


16 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  582. 


Table  3 shows  the  amount  ol‘  lumber  which  can  be  obtained  from 
different-sized  chestnut  trees. 

Table  3. — Board  feet  of  lumber  obtainable  from  chestnut  trees  of  different  sizes  d 
[Based  on  measurements,  from  the  various  diameters,  of  from  2 to  17  trees.] 


F^iameter 

breasthigh. 

Height  of  tree— feet. 

Trunks  of 
trees  used 
to  top 
diameter 
(inside 
bark). 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

Board 

Board 

Board 

Board 

Board 

Inches. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

Inches. 

9 

10 

15 

22 

7 

10 

26 

32 

40 

48 

56 

7 

11 

42 

50 

58 

69 

80 

8 

12 

58 

68 

78 

92 

107 

8 

13 

74 

87 

100 

116 

133 

8 

14 

92 

107 

122 

141 

160 

8 

15 

no 

127 

147 

168 

190 

9 

16 

129 

150 

172 

196 

222 

9 

17 

174 

200 

226 

255 

9 

18 

198 

227 

257 

291 

10 

19 

223 

257 

292 

328 

10 

20 

250 

288 

327 

368 

10 

21 

276 

318 

363 

409 

11 

22 

305 

350 

400 

451 

11 

23 

333 

385 

440 

493 

11 

24 

363 

420 

479 

538 

12 

25 

396 

457 

520 

583 

12 

1 From  Forest  Service  Bui.  96,  “Second-Growth  Hardwoods  in  Connecticut.” 

Scaling  by  international  rule,  with  10  per  cent  deducted  for  circular  saw  kerf. 

TIES. 

Chestnut  finds  a wide  use  for  ties,  but  it  must  meet  the  competition 
of  better  woods,  and  therefore  does  not  hold  its  place  as  well  as  in  the 
pole  market.  In  durabihty  it  compares  well  with  white  oak,  but  its 
mechanical  life  in  service  is  relatively  short.  Chestnut  ties  are  both 
hewed  and  sawed,  the  cost  of  manufacture  ranging  from  10  cents  per 
tie  upward.  Hewed  ties  may  first  be  sawed  to  the  proper  lengths  and 
then  hewed  flat  on  two  parallel  sides,  or  a tree  may  be  hewed  on  two 
sides  before  cutting  into  tie  lengths.  Sawing  costs  more  than  hewing, 
but  saves  considerable  lumber  from  the  sides  of  logs.  Moreover, 
sawed  ties  cost  less  to  haul  than  hewed  ones,  and  the  cost  of  hauling  is 
the  most  variable  factor  in  the  cost  of  tie  production.  As  a rule,  there 
is  more  profit  in  sawing  lumber  than  ties.  In  the  case  of  crooked 
trees,  however,  hewed  ties  are  probably  the  most  profitable  product, 
provided  there  is  not  a sawmill  or  stave  mill  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 
To  secure  information  on  the  size  of  ties  demanded  and  the  prices  paid, 
the  stumpage  owner  should  consult  the  nearest  railroad  station  agent. 
Specifications  used  and  prices  paid  by  a few  of  the  railroads  during 
the  winter  of  1913-14  were  as  follows: 


New  York,  New  Haven  & Hartford  R.  R. : 
First  class 

Second  class 

Third  class 


Size. 

'8^  X 1"  X 1" — 12^'  hewed 
X 1"  X 9^'  sawed 
'8"  X X 6'"— 12""  hewed 
,8"  X 6""  X 8""  sawed 

'8"  X 6""  X 5""— 12'"  hewed 
,8"  X 6""  X 7""  sawed 


Price. 
I $0. 70 
} .55 

} .35 


USES  FOR  CHESTNUT  TIMBER  KILLED  BY  BARK  DISEASE.  17 


New  York  Central  & Hudson  River  R.  R 

First  class 

Second  class 

Third  class 

Pennsylvania  Railroad : 

First  class 

Second  class 

Third  class 

Delaware,  Lackawanna  c'c  W'estern  R.  R. 
h'irst  class 

Second  class 


Size. 


■8^ 

X 

7// 

X 

7"— 

8^ 

X 

7// 

X 

r" 

8r 

X 

X 

X 

6" 

X 

8r 

X 

6"' 

X 

8" 

.8^"  X 7' 
X 7 


V2^‘'  pole  1 
s(piare / 
square 
pole 
square 

1x7^^  pole  1 
\x  scpiare j 
|x  ])ole  \ 
\x  7'''  scpiare  j 
X 5'^  pole  1 
X 6^^  square  j 


I’rice. 
$0.  65 
.60 
.50 


('8=^'  X 7 ' X 8'^ — 12'^  square \ 

(8.^-  X 7^^  X 7 ^ pole  J 

f8^^  X 6^^  X 7^''  squarel 

{8Y  X 6'^  X 6"  pole  / 


.45 

.20 

.60 

.40 


Fig.  5.— Making  hewed  chestnut  ties. 

Trolley  ties  usually  range  from  8 feet  by  6 inches  by  8 inches  to  8 feet 
by  8 inches  by  8 inches.  Some  companies  acce])t  a 7-foot  tie  and  some 
take  ties  with  faces  as  narrow  as  5 inches. 

Ties  are  usually  required  to  be  of  sound  timber,  free  from  defects, 
and  to  have  been  cut  in  the  fall,  winter,  or  early  spring.  In  New 
England  chestnut  is  specified  for  switch  timbers  7 by  9 inches,  in 
lengths  as  ordered.  They  are  purchased  by  the  board  foot,  bringing 
from  $18  to  $20  per  thousand  feet. 


Fig.  6.— Chestnut  poles  to  be  used  for  the  manufacture  of  keg  staves. 

SLACK  COOPERAGE. 

Chestnut  is  being  used  for  nail-keg  staves.  These  are  f-inch  thick, 
18  inches  long,  and  from  2 to  5 inches  at  the  bilge.  They  are  usually 
required  to  be  chamfered,  crozed,  and  jointed.  Chestnut  is  also  used 
for  cement,  apple,  and  other  kinds  of  slack  barrel  staves.  Barrel  staves 
are  28  or  28^  inches  long,  and  from  2 to  6 inches  wide;  cement  staves 
are  f to  ^ inch  thick;  apple  staves  J-inch  thick,  and  flour  staves,  f-inch 


18  FARMERS^  BULLETIN  582. 

Table  4 shows  the  number  of  ties  obtainable  from  chestnut  trees  of 
different  sizes. 

Table  4. — Number  of  8-foot  by  6-inch  by  8-inch  ties  obtainable  from  chestnut  trees  of 

different  sizes  d 

[Based  on  measurements,  for  the  various  diameters,  of  from  2 to  17  trees.] 


Diameter 

Height  of  trees- 

-feet. 

breasthigh. 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

Inches. 

Number 
of  ties. 

Number 
of  ties. 

Number 
of  ties. 

Number 
of  ties. 

Number 
of  ties. 

10 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

11 

1 

1 

2 

2 

4 

12 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

13 

3 

3 

3 

4 

5 

14 

3 

3 

5 

5 

8 

15 

5 

5 

5 

6 

9 

16 

6 

6 

7 

7 

9 

17 

6 

8 

8 

10 

18 

7 

8 

9 

11 

19 

7 

8 

10 

12 

20 

8 

10 

11 

13 

21 

9 

10 

11 

14 

22 

11 

10 

14 

17 

23 

12 

12 

14 

17 

24 

12 

13 

15 

19 

25 

15 

15 

18 

21 

1 From  Forest  Service  Bui.  96,  “Second-Growth  Hardwoods  in  Connecticut.” 


USES  EOK  CllEST^^UT  TIMBER  KILLED  BV  BAKK  DISEASE. 


19 


thick.  Barrel  staves  are  neither  chamfered  nor  crozed  at  tlie  mill. 
Chestnut  is  also  used  for  slack  lieading.  The  manufacture  of  staves  is 
one  of  the  best  means  of  utilizing  wood,  since  material  as  small  as 
3 inches  in  diameter  and  19  inches  long  will  often  he  accepted.  Slack 
cooperage  mills  sometimes  purchase  logs  and  bolts  which  may  Ix' 
measured  by  the  cord.  Some  of  the  bolts  may  be  as  small  as  3 or  4 
inches  in  diameter,  but  the  greater  portion  must  be  from  6 to  10 
inches.  Bolts  for  keg  staves  are  about  19  inches  long,  and  those  for 
barrel  staves  from  28J  to  30  inches  long.  Stave  bolts,  on  account  of 
their  small  size,  otfc'r  an  excellent  opportunity  for  the  utilization  of 
trees  too  crooked,  defective,  or  small  for  .poles,  lumber,  and  ties. 
Cooperage  mills  pay  up  to  $4.50  and  $5  for  chestnut  cofdwood 
delivered.  The  average  selling  price  at  mill  of  chestnut  barrel 
staves  is  from  $5  to  $6  per  thousand. 


Fig.  7. — Interior  of  stave  mill,  showing,  from  left  to  right,  circular  saw,  stave  saw,  stave  equalizer, 

and  stave  jointer. 

Representative  specifications  for  sawed  keg  and  cement  barrel 
staves  are  given  below.  Other  kinds  of  barrel  staves  and  heading  are 
governed  by  the  rules  of  the  National  Slack  Cooperage  Manufacturers’ 
Association. 

Specifications  for  sawed  leg  staves. 

All  staves  shall  be  bilge  sawed,  18  inches  long  after  trimming,  and  to  be  free  from 
bark,  large  knots,  loose  knots,  knot  holes,  and  wormholes.  By  large  knots  is  meant  knots 
large  enough  to  weaken  staves.  Staves  shall  be  of  such  uniform  thickness  that  when  put 
together  and  closely  clamped  the  combined  thickness  of  six  staves  shall  be  24  inches 
when  dry,  and  under  no  circumstances  shall  they  be  less  than  this  measurement.  Both 
ends  are  to  be  properly  chamfered  and  crozed.  All  staves  to  be  of  usual  widths,  ranging 
from  2 to  5 inches,  without  any  large  proportion  of  exceedingly  wide  or  extremely  narrow 
staves.  They  are  to  be  carefully  jointed,  to  be  of  the  same  width  at  both  ends,  and  to 
have  |-inch  bilge,  which  is  the  difference  in  measurement  between  the  width  of  staves 
measured  on  bilge  line  and  measured  at  end  of  stave;  all  measurements  to  be  made  on 
the  outside  of  stave.  All  staves  to  be  thoroughly  seasoned  before  shipment. 


20 


FARMERS^  lUTIJ.E'iMN  H.S^. 

Specifications  for  sawed  cement  barrel  staves. 

Staves  -to  be  2^  inches  long,  sawed  inch  thick,  and  to  be  of  uniform  thickness. 
Joints  to  be  exact  f-inch  bilge,  with  9-inch  quarter.  By  9-inch  quarter  we  mean 
that  if  two  staves  be  held  together  on  the  joints,  end  to  end,  they  shall  close  tight 
9 inches  from  end  toward  center.  Staves  must  be  of  equal  widths  at  each  end.  The 
joints  must  be  smooth,  no  slivered  nor  broken  joints  to  be  included.  No  staves  to  be 
wider  than  5^  inches  nor  narrower  than  2^-  inches  across  the  bilge.  There  must  be  a 
bevel  or  undercut  on  the  joint,  suitable  to  work  on  a IC-inch  head.  There  must  be 
no  bark  on  any  jmrt  of  the  stave.  Joints  must-be  full  and  flush.  There  must  be  no 
holes,  black  knots,  nor  large  breakable  knots.  Black  knots  will  drop  out,  leaving 
holes.  Staves  with  checks  or  8i)lits  must  not  be  included.  These  should  be  re- 
jointed at  mill;  if  shipped,  will  be  culled.  Staves  must  be  made  from  sound  live 
timber  only.  Staves  made  from  old  brash  or  doty  timber  will  not  answer.  Staves  to 
be  put  up  in  bundles  of  not  over  52  nor  under  50  staves  i)er  bundle  of  200  inches.  All 
staves  must  be  thoroughly  air-dried  before  bundled. 


Fig.  8.— le-inch  chestnut  bolts  slabbed  for  shingle  saw. 
SHINGLES. 


Chestnut  shingles  are  manufactured  and  used  locally  in  practically 
all  the  States  where  the  bark  disease  exists.  They  do  not  compete 
in  the  general  market  with  cedar  shingles  and  should  be  manufac- 
tured only  when  they  can  be  sold  in  the  community  or  through  a local 
lumber  yard.  Most  chestnut  shingles  are  sawed,  although  they  may 
be  split.  The  farmer  who  needs  shingles  and  has  dead  chestnut  in 
his  woodlot  should  split  enough  for  the  purpose.  This  can  be  done 
by  cutting  blocks  the  length  of  a shingle,  splitting  them  with  a frow 
and  shaving  the  shingle  on  both  sides  with  a drawknife  to  secure  the 
propc'r  taper.  Chestnut  shingles  are  likely  to  warp,  but  this  may 


USES  FOR  CHESTNUT  TIMBER  KILLED  BY  BARK  DISEASE.  21 

be  overcome  either  by  making  the  shingles  in  lengths  of  16  inches, 
rather  than  longer,  or  else  edge-grain  shingles,  which  are  said  to  warp 
but  little.  Leaking  around  the  nails  is  likely  to  occur  because  the 
tannin  in  the  wood  corrodes  iron,  but  it  can  be  avoided  by  using 
galvanized  nails.  With  these  two  disadvantages  overcome,  chestnut 
makes  a durable  shingle,  having  been  known  to  last  for  35  years. 
Chestnut  shingles  are  from  16  to  24  inches  long,  and  bring  from  $2.50 
up  per  thousand.  Since  they  are  cut  from  short  blocks,  they  may  be 
made  from  trees  too  crooked  and  defective  for  poles,  lumber,  or  ties. 

FENCE  POSTS  AND  RAILS. 

Chestnut  is  used  for  fence  posts  and  rails,  for  which  it  is  one  of 
the  most  durable  woods.  The  cost  of  a wire  fence  and  a rail  fence 
of  mortised  posts  and  split  rails  is  about  the  same.  For  this  reason 
the  woodlot  owner  who  has  dead  chestnut  should  consider  whether 
it  would  be  advisable  to  build  a wire  fence  when  he  has  material 
which  if  cut  now  would  answer  the  purpose. 

Specifications  for  fence  posts  used  by  two  railroads  follow: 

Fence  posts  must  be  round,  sound,  free  from  shakes,  rotten  knots,  and  bark;  must  be 
7^  feet  long  and  6 inches  in  diameter  at  tip.  Price  12  cents  each.  Rejected  ties 
conforming  to  these  specifications  and  7^  to  84  feet  long  are  accepted  as  fence  posts. 

Fence  posts  to  be  8 feet  long,  not  less  than  5 inches  in  diameter  at  small  end,  straight, 
sound,  and  sawed  off  at  ends;  price  10  cents  each. 

TANNIN  EXTRACT. 

Chestnut  wood  is  used  more  than  any  other  by  tannin-extract 
plants.  Northern  timber  contains  less  tannin,  however,  than 
southern  timber,  though  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  bark  disease 
decreases  the  tannin  content.  In  the  South  old  timber  has  a tannin 
content  of  12  per  cent,  and  second  growth  of  7 per  cent;  while  in  the 
North  the  tannin  content  of  the  former  is  7 per  cent  and  of  the  latter 
only  3 or  4 per  cent.  For  this  reason  there  are  few  tannin-extract 
plants  north  of  the  Potomac  River,  so  that  this  market  for  chestnut 
timber  in  the  region  of  the  bark  disease  is  very  limited.  Several 
tannin-extract  plants,  however,  are  in  Pennsylvania,  and  sample 
specifications  are  given  below,  for  the  information  of  chestnut  owners 
in  that  State: 

Wood  must  be  cut  4 feet  in  length  if  sawed,  and  when  chopped  it  must  measure 
4 feet  in  length  counting  only  half  the  slope  on  each  end,  and  not  counting  4 feet  from 
point  to  point.  The  wood  must  be  left  as  coarse  as  it  can  be  conveniently  handled 
but  no  large  sticks  or  knots  over  12  inches  in  diameter  should  be  shipped,  and  when 
the  whole  tree  is  cut  for  extract  wood  we  will  receive  it  down  to,  but  in  no  case  less 
than,  4 inches  at  the  small  end.  All  knots  must  be  closely  trimmed;  all  cars  must  be 
loaded  to  their  full  capacity;  slab  wood  will  not  be  received  at  any  price;  not  over 
10  per  cent  of  small  wood,  say  4 inches,  will  be  received  in  any  one  car. 

Prices  f.  o.  b.  cars  in  Pennsylvania  range  from  about  $2.50  to  $3 
for  a standard  cord  of  128  cubic  feet,  and  from  $3  to  $3.50  for  a 


22 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  582. 


long  cord  of  160  cubic  feet.  It  costs  about  $1  a cord  to  cut  the  wood, 
while  the  cost  of  hauling  necessarily  depends  on  the  distance.  Table  5 
shows  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  cordwood  obtainable  from  trees 
of  different  sizes. 

Table  5. — Amount  of  cordwood  obtainable  from  chestnut  trees  of  different  sizesA 
[Based  on  measurements,  for  the  various  diameters,  of  from  2 to  18  trees.] 


Diameter 

Height  of  tree— feet. 

hreasthigh. 

40 

50 

60 

70 

SO 

90 

Cubic 

Cubic 

Cubic 

Cubic 

Cubic 

Cubic 

Inches. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

4 

1.6 

2. 1 

5 

2.6 

3.3 

6 

3.  7 

4.6 

5.6 

7. . : 

5.0 

6.  2 

7.3 

8 

6.  5 

7.9 

9.4 

11.0 

9 

8.4 

10.  1 

11.8 

13.6 

10 

10.5 

12.5 

14.5 

16.6 

17.8 

19.0 

11 

12.8 

15.3 

17.9 

20.7 

22.5 

24.3 

12 

15.4 

18.4 

21.5 

25.0 

27.4 

30.0 

13 

18.2 

21.  7 

25.2 

29.  1 

32. 1 

35.3 

14 

25.0 

29.2 

33.  8 

37.  7 

41.3 

15 

28.8 

3.3.6 

38.8 

43.4 

48.  0 

16 

32.6 

38. 1 

44.  0 

49.  5 

55.  0 

17 

36.5 

42.  7 

49.5 

56.0 

63.0 

IS 

40.5 

47.  4 

55.5 

63.0 

70.5 

19 

44.3 

51.4 

61.  5 

70.  0 

79.  0 

20 

49.0 

5S.  5 

68.  5 

78.  0 

88.0 

21 

65.0 

75.  5 

86.0 

97.0 

22 

71.0 

83.0 

95.0 

106.5 

. 23 

78.0 

91.0 

104.  0 

117.0 

24 

85.  5 

99.5 

114.  0 

128.0 

25 

93.0 

108.5 

124.0 

140.0 

1 From  Forest  Service  Bui.  96,  ‘^Second-Growth  Hardwoods  in  Connecticut.” 

The  approximate  number  of  cords  in  a stand  of  trees  may  be  obtained  by  dividing  the  total  cubic  content 
by  90. 

V^olumes  include  stem  and  top  wood,  with  bark,  up  to  a minimum  diameter  of  2 inches.  Average  stump 
heights  vary  from  6 inches  for  small  trees  to  21  inches  for  large  ones. 

MINE  TIMBERS. 

(.'hestnut  is  used  for  mine  timbers,  but  can  be  profitably  cut  for  this 
purpose  only  if  it  is  within  hauling  distance  of  a mine  or  of  a railroad 
giving  a low  freight  rate  on  this  commodity.  In  the  form  of  round 
dimension  or  sawed  pieces  chestnut  is  used  for  practically  every  class  of 
material  demanded  by  mines.  Mine  props  are  usually  round  and  in 
lengths  from  about  2^  feet  up.  Usually,  however,  they  are  purchased 
in  lengths  of  from  10  to  30  feet,  and  of  a diameter  at  the  small  end 
of  from  2 to  8 inches.  (Pillar  timbers  are  larger  than  props  and 
are  sometimes  sawed  instead  of  round.  They  range  from  10  to  30 
feet  ill  length  and  from  10  to  14  inches  in  diameter.  Representative 
prices  paid  for  props  and  collar  timbers  delivered  at  mines,  cars,  or 
wharves  are  as  follows: 


Diameter  inside  bark 

Price  per 

Diameter  inside  bark 

Price  per 

at  .small  end. 

linear  foot. 

at  small  end. 

linear  foot. 

4 inclie.s 

$0.01 

9 inches 

$0.05 

6 inches  

02 

10  inches 

06 

7 inches 

03 

12  inches 

10 

8 inches 

04 

14  inches 

14 

USES  FOR  CHESTNUT  TIMBER  KILLED  BY  BARK  DISEASE.  23 

Mine  timbers  are  also  pui’chased  by  the  ton,  at  prices  from  $2.85 
to  $4.25.  Flat  mine  ties  range  from  4 feet  long  by  2^  inches  thick 
by  34  inches  face,  purchased  at  4^  cents  each,  to  6 feet  long  by  6 
inches  thick  by  6 inches  face,  at  18  cents.  The  average  size  is 
probably  about  5 feet  long  by  5 inches  thick  by  5 inches  face,  and 
the  average  price  is  about  9 cents.  Round,  notched  mine  ties  made 
of  chestnut  are  seldom  accepted.  Poles  used  for  lagging  are  from 
5 to  7 feet  long,  with  a diameter  at  the  small  end  of  from  2 to  2J 
inches.  Sprags  are  from  18  to  22  inches  long,  with  a middle  diameter 
of  24  to  3 t inches,  and  taper  to  a point  at  both  ends.  Woods  harder 
than  chestnut  are  usually  preferred.  Mines  also  purchase  chestnut 
in  lumber  and  dimension  sizes. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PRODUCTS. 

In  some  sections  of  the  East,  brickyards,  limekilns,  and  brass  fac- 
tories use  large  quantities  of  wood  for  fuel.  Most  of  these  companies 
will  accept  cordwood  that  contains  more  or  less  chestnut,  paying  for 
the  mixed  wood  from  $3.50  to  $4.50  per  cord.  Stumpage  owners  in 
the  vicinity  of  such  plants  should  ask  for  prices,  with  the  idea  of  con- 
verting their  dead  timber  into  cordwood,  provided  there  is  no  better 
market  for  it.  It  is  better,  of  course,  to  make  a little  on  the  dead 
timber  now  than  to  lose  everything  by  waiting  several  years.  As 
a household  fuel  chestnut  is  not  as  good  as  hickory  or  white  oak,  and 
will  throw  sparks  from  an  open  fireplace.  Owners  of  small  amounts 
of  dead  chestnut,  however,  can  use  such  material  for  summer  fuel 
and,  at  the  same  time,  improve  their  woodlots.  Chestnut  can  be 
manufactured  into  charcoal,  but  the  operation  would  have  to  be 
conducted  with  extreme  skill,  and  the  product  would  have  to  compete 
with  charcoal  made  by  wood  distillation  plants.  These  latter  do  not 
use  chestnut,  since  the  proportion  of  distillates  obtained  from  it  is  too 
low.  Charcoal  burning  in  pits  with  chestnut  as  the  material,  how- 
ever, is  being  carried  on  in  a few  places  at  a profit,  but  this  means  of 
utilizing  the  timber  should  be  considered  only  if  no  other  means  is 
open. 

If  there  is  a veneer  plant  within  shipping  distance  and  disease- 
infected  timber  can  be  cut  the  same  season  the  trees  are  killed, 
before  commencing  to  dry  out,  there  should  be  a market  for  large, 
sound  logs.  In  grape-raising  districts  chestnut  can  be  used  for 
vineyard  props.  Along  the  coast  it  has  been  used  for  piles,  ship 
timbers,  and  posts  for  foundations  of  cottages.  Chestnut  poles  8 to 
12  feet  long  and  from  4 inches  up  in  diameter,  hewed  on  one  side,  have 
been  reported  as  sold  for  cribbing  and  rough  construction. 


' I ' . I ' 


24 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  582. 
RECOMMENDATIONS. 


1.  Diseased  cliestniit  should  be  cut,  if  possible,  during  the  first 
winter  after  infection. ^ The  utilization  of  timber  killed  by  the  bark 
disease  does  not  depend  upon  the  development  of  markets,  but  on 
getting  the  timber  on  the  present  market  before  it  deteriorates  and 
becomes  unmerchantable. 

2.  The  owner  should  carefully  consider  the  various  ])roducts 
marketable  in  the  locality  which  he  can  obtain  from  his  chestnut 
trees,  and  should  select  the  one  most  profitable. 

3.  It  is  best  for  the  owner  to  do  the  cutting,  manufacturing,  and 
hauling  himself  in  order  to  save  operators’  profits.  In  the  case  of 
large  tracts  of  timber,  however,  an  experienced  operator  should  be 
hired. 

4.  The  owner  of  dead  chestnut,  who  wishes  to  learn  of  markets  for 
products  which  he  can  manufacture  himself  or  of  an  operator  who 
can  handle  his  woodlot,  should  write  to  the  forestry  official  in  his 


State.  These  officials  are: 

State  Forester Concord,  N.  H. 

State  Forester Boston,  Mass, 

Commissioner  of  Forestry... Chepachet,  R.  I. 

State  Forester New  Haven,  Conn. 

Conservation  Commission Albany,  N.  Y. 

State  Forester Trenton,  N.  J. 

Commissioner  of  Forestry Harrisburg,  Pa. 

Secretary  Board  of  Agriculture Dover,  Del. 

State  Forester Baltimore,  Md. 

Commissioner  of  Agriculture Richmond.  Va. 

Forester,  State  Crop  Pest  Commission Martinsburg,W.Va. 


These  State  officers  can  furnish  the  followmg  lists : 

Sawmill  operators  experienced  in  cutting  chestnut  lumber  and  sawed  ties. 

Telephone,  electric  light,  power,  and  traction  companies  which  buy  chestnut  poles. 

Steam  and  electric  railroads  which  buy  chestnut  ties. 

Pole  and  tie  operators  and  dealers. 

Slack  cooperage  mills,  tannin  extract  plants,  etc. 

5.  Any  owner  of  chestnut  stump  age  who  wishes  more  detailed 
information  on  utilization  or  woodlot  management  than  is  given  in 
this  bulletin  should  apply  to  the  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 

1 The  following  suggestions  are  made  for  woodlot  management:  If  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  original 
stand  is  chestnut  its  removal  will  amount  to  only  a thinning,  thus  increasing  the  growing  space  of  the 
remaining  trees.  Nothing  further  would  ordinarily  be  required  to  insure  continued  timber  production 
over  the  entire  area.  When  chestnut  predominates  in  the  stand  it  may  be  best  to  cut  the  area  clean  and 
plant  with  white  or  Norway  pine  or  red  oak. 


O 


dS.DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  Henry  W.  Henshaw,  Chief. 
May  14,  1914. 


THE  COMMON  MOLE  OF  THE  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES. 

By  Theo.  H.  Scheffer,  Assistant  Biologist. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

Within  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States  are  five  recognized 
groups  of  true  moles.  Two  of  these  are  confined  to  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  three  are  distributed  over  the  section  east  of  the  one  hundredth 
meridian  extending  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf.  There  are  no  moles  in 
he  Rocky  Mountain  region,  and  their  range  is  very  restricted  in  the 
Great  Basin  and  on  the  Great  Plains.  The  common  mole  ^ may  be 
ound  almost  everywhere  south  of  the  New  England  States,  New 
Pork,  Michigan,  and  central  Wisconsin,  except  in  the  mountain 
regions.  In  the  latter  districts  and  in  the  greater  part  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  York,'  and  New  England  the  common  mole  is  replaced 
oy  the  star-nosed  mole  ^ and  Brewer’s  mole.^ 

The  general  distribution  of  the  mole  seems  to  depend  very  largely 
on  the  condition  of  the  soil  and  on  the  humidity  of  the  climate. 
Moles  are  absent  altogether  from  our  arid  regions,  and  where  the 
prairies  of  the  West  merge  gradually  into  the  plains  they  are  found 
only  along  water  courses.  In  these  regions  of  deficient  rainfall  the 
ground  is  so  dry  and  hard  the  greater  part  of  the  year  as  to  be  wholly 
unsuited  to  the  existence  of  earthworms  and  the  various  insect  larvae 
upon  which  the  mole  depends  for  subsistence.  The  mole  is  most  abun- 
dant in  moist,  rich  soils  along  streams,  particularly  if  these  situations 
are  somewhat  shaded. 


DESCRIPTION. 

The  mole  is  so  seldom  seen,  even  by  those  who  are  familiar  with  its 
work,  that  it  is  often  confused  with  other  small  creatures,  particu- 
larly the  shrew,  the  vole  or  meadow  mouse,  and  the  pocket  gopher. 


1 Scalopus  aquaticus.  2 Condylura  cristata.  3 Parascalops  hrexceri. 

Note.— This  bulletin  treats  of  the  mole  found  east  of  the  one  hundredth  meridian.  It  contains  an 
account  of  its  habits,  the  nature  of  the  damages  committed  by  it,  and  the  methods  employed  for  its 
destruction.  It  also  seeks  to  remove  some  popular  misconceptions  concerning  this  little  animal.  It  is  of 
interest  to  gardeners,  lawn  makers,  caretakers  of  parks  and  cemeteries,  etc. 

34909°— Bull.  583—14 1 


2 


FAKMEKS'  BULLETIN  583. 


It  can,  however,  be  readily  distinguished  from  any  of  these  by  its 
short,  stout,  front  limbs  ending  in  broad,  rounded  hands  with  palms 
turned  outward.  It  has  a rather  elongated  body,  close,  plushlike 
fur,  a pointed  snout,  and  a short  tail.  Neither  external  eyes  nor  ears 
are  in  evidence.  If  not  totally  blind,  the  mole  can  at  best  merely 
distinguish  between  light  and  darkness,  as  the  vestigial  organs  of 
sight  lie  whoUy  beneath  the  skin. 

HABITS. 

The  mole  is  a creature  of  strictly  subterranean  habits.  Such  ex- 
periences as  fall  to  its  lot  must  necessarily  come  through  its  sensitive 


Fig.  1.— Mole  ridges  in  a sandy  pasture. 

touch,  acute  hearing,  or  highly  developed  powers  of  smell.  While 
the  animal  is  seldom  seen  above  ground,  it  sometimes  ventures  out 
of  its  tunnels,  perhaps  chiefly  at  night. 

RUNWAYS  AND  NESTS. 

The  living  quarters  of  the  mole  consist  of  a series  of  galleries  and 
tunnels  12  to  15  inches  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground — usually 
deep  enough  to  escape  the  plow.  This  central  part  of  the  system 
of  runways  can  ordinarily  be  located  by  little  piles  of  earth  thrust  up 
from  deeper  tunnels.  These  elevations  are  easily  distinguishable  from 
the  surface  ridgings  (figs.  1 and  2)  caused  by  the  mole’s  burrowing 
just  beneath  the  sod.  They  may  be  looked  for  on  the  higher  spots  of 
an  open  field  or  where  natural  objects  offer  concealment  and  shelter. 


THE  COMMON  MOLE  OF  THE  EASTEKN  UNITED  STATES. 


3 


There  are  no  ^hiiole  hills’’  in  this  country,  such  as  are  referred  to  in 
discussions  of  the  European  mole. 

The  nest  of  the  mole  is  usually  in  a chamber  4 or  5 inches  in  diame- 
ter and  about  a foot  beneath  the  surface.  In  all  cases  that  have 
come  under  the  writer’s  observation  the  materials  of  the  nest  consist 
mainly  of  closely  cropped  pasture  grasses  with  the  fine  fibrous  roots 
attached.  It  is  probable  that  this  grass  stubble  was  pulled  down  by 
the  roots  into  the  upper  surface  burrows  and  then  carried  to  the 
nesting  chambers.  When  located  near  trees  the  nests  sometimes 
consist  of  leaves  mixed  with  grass. 


Fig.  2.— Showing  the  mole’s  method  of  repairing  runways.  Lower  right-hand  fork  not  repaired. 


Certain  galleries  or  passages  leading  out  from  the  deeper  central 
system  trend  upward  here  and  there  to  join  the  shallow  subsurface 
runs  that  range  over  the  mole’s  hunting  grounds.  These  hunting 
paths  produce  the  ridges  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  our  lawns, 
gardens,  and  fields.  Beneath  these  ridges  the  little  animal  hurries 
along  at  irregular  intervals  in  search  of  food,  and  when  occasion  de- 
mands, it  extends  the  Umits  of  its  operations  by  pushing  out  into 
untouched  soil.  As  it  extends  the  subsurface  runways  its  movement 
is  almost  literally  one  of  swimming.  With  powerful  action  of  the 
heavy  shoulder  muscles  the  hands  are  brought  forward,  palms  out- 
ward, until  they  almost  or  quite  touch  in  front  of  the  snout.  They 
are  then  thrust  outward  and  backward  to  push  the  soil  aside,  while 
the  body  follows  in  the  passageway  thus  created. 


4 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  583. 
ACTIVE  PERIODS. 


It  is  commonly  believed  that  the  mole  works  only  at  regular  peri- 
ods each  day,  but  direct-  observations  taken  in  late  summer  and  in 
the  fall  fail  to  show  that  there  is  any  one  time  of  day  when  it  is  more 
active  than  at  others. 

If  a slight  opening  is  made  into  a mole’s  runway  the  little  ani- 
mal will  invariably  repair  the  breach  (fig.  2)  when  it  next  comes 
that  way.  By  taking  advantage  of  this  habit  one  can  gain  much 
information  by  visiting,  at  short  intervals  through  the  day,  each  of 
a number  of  runs  in  which  a small  break  has  been  made.  In  an  ex- 
periment by  the  writer  50  runs  were  thus  kept  under  observation  for 
periods  of  several  days  at  a time  with  results  indicating  that  moles 
are  as  likely  to  be  found  at  work  one  hour  of  the  day  or  night  as 
another. 

As  to  seasonal  activity,  it  may  be  said  that  moles  are  probably 
never  dormant,  that  they  never  hibernate.  They  may  be  trapped  at 
any  time  of  the  year  when  the  ground  is  not  frozen  too  hard  to  pre- 
vent the  working  of  the  trap.  It  must  be  understood,  however,  that 
extension  of  surface  runways  occurs  mainly  at  timgs  when  soil  con- 
ditions are  favorable — after  rains  in  the  summer  or  during  periods 
of  thawing  in  the  winter.  At  other  times  the  mole  may  secure  his 
food  by  retraversing  his  old  runs  or  by  working  at  depths  unaffected 
by  frost  or  drought.  Movements  of  soil-inhabiting  worms,  insects, 
and  larvae  tend  to  bring  ever  fresh  supplies  of  food  into  the  moles’ 
passageways. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES  AND  CHECKS. 

By  reason  of  its  secluded  life  the  mole  is  little  subject  to  attacks 
by  the  many  foes  of  other  small  mammals.  Its  burrow  is  so  small 
that  no  formidable  enemies  except  weasels  or  snakes  can  follow  in  the 
passageways,  and  as  it  seldom  leaves  these  there  is  little  chance  of 
its  being  seen  by  predatory  animals.  However,  the  movement  of 
the  soil  when  a mole  is  working  near  the  surface  may  readily  be  de- 
tected by  a watchful  foe,  and  it  is  probable  that  hungry  foxes  and 
co3mtes  secure  a tidbit  now  and  then  by  springing  suddenly  upon  a 
disturbed  spot  of  earth  and  hurriedly  digging  out  the  furry  little 
miner.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  evidence  that  moles  are  distaste- 
ful to  some  animals,  for  they  are  seldom  eaten  by  domestic  cats  and 
dogs  which  have  learned  to  catch  them.  A peculiarly  disagreeable 
odor  attaching  to  the  mole  may  account  for  its  not  being  relished  by 
the  carnivora.  It  is  quite  likely,  also,  that  the  dense,  soft  fur  is 
objectionable  to  some  animals. 

Among  the  birds  of  prey  hawks  and  owls  take  small  toll  from  the 
mole  tribe.  An  examination  of  the  stomach  contents  of  over  2,000 


THE  COMMON  MOLE  OF  THE  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES.  5 

of  these  birds  disclosed  the  remains  of  hut  13  moles. ^ Five  of  these 
had  been  eaten  by  the  red-tailed  hawk,  four  by  the  red-shouldered 
hawk,  and  one  each  by  the  broad-winged  hawk,  the  barred  owl,  the 
great  gray  owl,  and  the  screech  owl.  Of  3,005  skulls  of  small  mam- 
mals found  in  pellets  disgorged  by  the  barn  owl,  only  twm  were  of  the 
m.ole. 

Occasional  or  periodical  floods  w^hich  spread  over  lowlands  ad- 
joining streams  constitute  one  of  the  greatest  checks  on  the  inordi- 
nate increase  of  moles.  During  these  inundations  numbers  of  moles 
may  be  found  clinging  to  drift  masses  lodged  against  various  obstruc- 
tions. Even  though  these  individuals  survive,  their  young  have 
probably  perished  in  the  nests,  for  it  is  in  the  breeding  season  that 
the  freshets  commonly  occur. 

BREEDING  HABITS. 

Judging  from  the  facts  presented  under  the  preceding  heading, 
it  would  appear  that  the  mole  may  be  a comparatively  slow  breeder 
and  still  maintain  its  normal  numbers  from  year  to  year.  Such 
we  find  to  be  the  case.  From  observations  taken  in  the  Middle  West 
it  was  learned  that  the  little  animal  breeds  but  once  a year  and  that 
the  number  of  young  at  a birth  averages  about  four.  These  are 
produced  in  March  or  early  April.  Development  after  birth  is 
comparatively  rapid,  for  young  found  in  the  nest  still  hairless  had 
already  attained  one-third  the  weight  of  the  adults.  Furthermore, 
yoimg  moles  trapped  in  the  fall  are  almost  fully  grown. 

TRESPASSERS. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  mole  is  not  permitted  to  enjoy 
undisputed  occupancy  of  the  underground  galleries  w^hich  his  industry 
has  constructed.  Certain  other  small  mammals,  particularly  shrews, 
voles  or  meadow  mice,  and  sometimes  ordinary  house  mice,  find  these 
tunnels  convenient  b3rways  for  marauding.  As  a result  of  this  tres- 
passing the  reputation  of  the  mole  suffers,  for  most  of  the  injury  to 
seed  grains,  tubers,  and  roots  of  cultivated  plants  is  directly  charge- 
able to  these  intruding  rodents.  A study  of  tooth  marks  on  the^ 
damaged  products  will  bear  out  this  statement. 

NATURAL  FOOD. 

The  food  habits  of  moles  have  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion, 
but  considering  the  multiphed  evidence  of  digestive  tract,  dentition, 
stomach  contents,  and  choice  of  food  when  in  captivity,  it  must  be 

1 See  “Hawks  and  Owls  of  the  United  States  in  their  Relation  to  Agriculture,”  by  Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher. 

U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Ornithology  and  Mammalogy,  Bull.  3,  1893. 

34909°— Bull.  583—14 2 


6 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  583. 


admitted  that  the  mole  is  a carnivorous  animal.  There  is  little  to 
be  gained  by  quibbling  over  the  fact  that  a small  quantity  of  vegetable 
matter  is  sometimes  found  in  the  mole’s  stomach.  The  economic 
status  of  an  animal  ought  not  to  be  prejudiced  by  la^dng  undue 
emphasis  on  its  trifling  digressions  from  the  normal. 

From  an  examination  of  the  stomach  contents  of  200  moles  taken 
in  all  months  of  the  year  it  was  found  that  earthworms  and  white 
grubs  constitute  the  brdk  of  the  food.  Beetles  and  their  larvae 
and  other  insects  that  enter  the  ground,  spiders,  centipedes,  cocoons, 
and  puparia  also  form  a part  of  the  diet.  In  one  stomach  were  found 
the  remains  of  171  small  white  grubs,  in  another  250  ant  puparia, 
in  another  10  cutworms,  and  in  another  12  earthworms.  The 
presence  of  starchy  material  in  some  of  the  stomachs  is  proof  that  the 
mole  occasionally  finds  vegetable  food,  as  certain  seed  grains  softened 
b}^  contact  with  the  moist  soil,  an  acceptable  addition  to  its  worm  and 
insect  diet.  Seed  coats  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  peanuts  have  been 
identified  in  a few  stomachs. 

In  captivity  moles  ravenously  eat  beefsteak,  flesh  of  birds,  fish, 
or  almost  any  sort  of  fresh  meat.  Owing  to  their  activity  they 
sometimes  consume  each  day  a bulk  of  food  equal  to  their  own  weight. 
In  an  experiment  with  over  30  captive  moles  the  witer  has  known 
but  one  to  touch  field  corn  or  tubers  when  placed  vfithin  easy  access. 
A few  ate  green  sweet  corn  from  the  cob,  but  numbers  starved  to 
death  when  supplied  with  white  potatoes  and  sweet  potatoes. 

INJURY  AND  DEPREDATIONS. 

Complaints  of  damage  or  depredations  by  moles  are  frequent  and 
insistent.  In  most  cases,  perhaps,  the  charges  if  investigated  would 
be  sustained  by  the  evidence  presented;  for  in  situations  where  the 
mole  is  not  wanted  it  is  considered  an  intolerable  nuisance.  In  very 
many  cases,  on  the  other  hand,  a thorough  investigation  would  show 
that  the  small  rodents  which  follow  in  the  mole’s  runways  are  wholly 
responsible  for  the  damage  to  seed  grains  and  cultivated  food  products 
that  grow  underground. 

In  lawns,  parks,  cemeteries,  kitchen  gardens,  flower  beds,  and  hke 
situations  the  mole  may  be  regarded  from  our  standpoint  as  a useful 
animal  out  of  place.  In  pursuing  its  natural  inclination  to  tunnel 
through  the  soil  in  search  of  food  it  injures  roots  of  plants,  displaces 
seeds,  upridges  the  sod,  and  leaves  passageways  for  plunderers  to 
follow.  Not  only  are  grasses,  plants,  and  flowers  thus  materially 
injured,  but  unsightly  ridges  are  left.  The  presence  of  moles  in  these 
situations  probably  is  evidence  of  a heavy  infestation  of  -the  soil 
by  white  grubs,  but  the  case  in  point  is  only  another  illustration 
of  the  old  saying  that  the  remedy  may  be  worse  than  the  disease. 


THE  COMMON  MOLE  OF  THE  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES.  7 

HOW  TO  DESTROY  THE  MOLE. 

^Mien  it  is  desirable  to  destro}^  moles,  the  trap  will  usually  be 
found  the  most  efficient  mean.^.  So  far  all  experiments  undertaken 
with  the  object  of  finding  an  acceptable  poisoned  bait  have  given 
negative  results,  as  the  very  nature  of  the  animars  food  makes  it 
difficult  to  secure  a satisfactory  substitute  for  living  grubs,  worms, 
and  insects.  Then,  too,  the  little  animal  seems  shrewd  and  quick 
to  sense  the  danger  in  poisoned  substances. 

A number  of  excellent  mole  traps  are  on  the  market,  and  most  of 
them  will  give  good  results  if  properly  set.  However,  the  mechanism 
of  a trap  is  of  secondary  importance  to  the  operator’s  knowledge  of 
the  mole’s  works  and  ways.  All  makes  of  traps  that  have  come 
under  the  writer’s  observation  may  be  divided  into  three  classes — the 
harpoon  type,  the  scissor-jaw  type,  and  the  choker  type.  Harpoon- 
type  traps  (fig.  3,  a)  are  designed  to  impale  the  mole  in  the  soil  by 
spring-driA^en  spikes.  Scissor-jaw  traps  (fig.  3,  b)  are  intended  to 
be  set  astride  the  runway  to  grasp  the  mole  firmly  when  he  attempts 
to  pas^  from  either  direction.  The  choker  type  (fig.  3,  c,  and  fig.  4)  has 
a pair  of  wire  loops  that  encircle  the  burrow  when  the  trap  is  set.  All 
three  types  are  designed  to  be  sprung  by  the  same  sort  of  mechanism — 
a trigger  pan  resting  on  a depressed  portion  of  the  mole  ridge  in 
such  a way  as  to  be  lifted  when  the  animal  passes  beneath.  No  part 
of  an  efficient  mole  trap  may  be  in  the  runway  itself,  as  any  intrusion 
of  this  sort  Avill  ahnost  iiwariably  excite  the  natural  suspicion  of  the 
animal  to  the  extent  of  leading  him  to  burrow  around  or  beneath 
even  a slight  obstruction. 

Only  general  directions  for  setting  mole  traps  can  be  given  here. 
Specific  instructions  for  handling  any  particular  make  of  trap  should 
be  furnished  by  the  manufacturer.  A mole  trap  can  be  successfully 
operated  only  when  set  on  that  part  of  a runway  that  is  near  enough 
to  the  surface  to  upridge  the  sod  or  soil.  A little  observation  Avill 
soon  enable  one  to  distinguish  the  newer  and  more  frequently  used 
runways  from  those  that  have  peen  partially  or  wholly  abandoned. 
A httle  cracldng  of  the  soil  where  the  sagging  roof  of  the  ridge  has 
been  raised  again,  a few  particles  of  fresh  earth  thrust  out  to  close 
a tiny  opening  or  crevice,  the  wilting  of  grass  or  foliage  along  the 
course — these  are  indications  of  an  occupied  runway.  When  in 
doubt  the  question  may  always  be  settled  by  making  a small  breach 
in  the  ridge,  and  if  that  particular  part  of  the  burrow  is  in  use  the 
mole  vdll  invariably  repair  the  break  when  he  comes  that  way  on  his 
rounds.  By  following  this  plan  all  the  centers  of  mole  actiAuty  on 
one’s  premises  may  be  definitely  located.  In  placing  the  trap  one 
of  the  stretches  of  the  run  that  seems  to  be  leading  in  some  definite 
direction  should  be  selected,  rather  than  one  of  the  turns  of  a labyrinth 
that  may  not  be  traversed  eA^ery  time  the  mole  comes  in  the  Aucinity. 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  583. 


Before  setting  the  trap  it  is  well  to  ascertain  the  course  of  the  burrow 
by  thrusting  down  a lead  pencil,  or  stick  of  about  that  size.  The 
trap  selected  should  then  be  lined  up  with  the  course  as  nearly  as 


Fig.  3.— Types  of  mole  traps:  a,  harpoon  type;  h,  scissor-jaw  type;  c,  choker  type. 

j)ossible;  the  jaws  of  the  scissor-jaw  type  should  straddle  it,  the 
loops  of  the  choker  type  should  encircle  it,  and  the  spikes  of  the  har- 
})oon  type  should  be  directly  above  it.  In  the  case  of  the  harpoon 
type  it  is  best  to  force  the  impaling  spikes  into  the  ground  once  or 


THE  COMMON  MOLE  OF  THE  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES. 


9 


twice  to  facilitate  their  penetrating  into  the  burrow  when  the  traj)  is 
later  sprung.  It  is  also  desirable,  in  setting  any  of  the  traps,  to 
depress  only  that  part  of  the  mole  ridge  that  is  immediately  beneath 
the  trigger  pan,  using  the  hand  instead  of  the  foot  for  this  purpose. 
A little  earth  may  be  built  up  snugly  under  the  pan  if  necessary. 
Avoid  treading  upon  other  parts  of  the  runways.  It  will  pay  to 
visit  the  traps  at  least  twice  a day. 

The  persistence  of  the  mole  in  repairing  breaks  in  his  runways 
(fig.  2)  is  equaled  only  by  that  of  the  spider  in  mending  its  torn  web. 
One  can  take  advantage  of  this  known  trait  not  only  in  selecting 
locations  for  trapping,  but  in  planning  the  capture  of  the  animal 
alive.  Though  requiring  more  time  and  attention  than  trapping, 
the  method  of  catching  moles  by  surprising  them  at  work  is  fairly 
practicable.  In  following 
this  plan  one  should 
open  up  5 or  6 feet  of 
ridge  in  each  of  the  sev- 
eral distinct  runway 
systems  and  make  the 
rounds  of  subsequent 
inspection  every  few 
minutes.  Wlien  a mole 
is  found  repairing  a 
break  he  can  be  tossed 
out  with  a shovel  and 
dispatched. 

Repeated  leveling  of 
the  mole  ridges  on  a 
lawn  by  means  of  a 
roller,  not  only  tends  to 
discourage  the  animals  from  making  further  incursions,  but  prevents 
that  injury  to  the  grass  roots  which  otherwise  would  result  and 
restores  to  the  lawn  its  more  sightly  appearance. 

ECONOMIC  STATUS. 

As  to  the  economic  status  of  the  mole  it  may  be  said  that  by  its 
activities  it  commends  itself  to  farmer  and  gardener  for  reasons 
other  than  that  of  its  food  habits.  One  of  the  most  abundant  of 
small  mammals,  for  ages  it  has  been  working  over  the  soil  to  the 
benefit  of  plant  life.  This  tunneling  by  the  shifting  of  earth  particles 
permits  better  aeration  of  the  soil  and  favors  the  entrance  of  water 
from  the  surface.  It  also  mixes  the  soil  and  subsoil,  carrying  humus 
farther  down  and  bringing  the  subsoil  nearer  the  surface,  whe^’o  its 
elements  of  plant  food  may  be  made  available. 


Fig.  4.— Mole  trap  of  the  choker  type,  devised  and  used  by  the 
Biological  Survey. 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  583. 


The  mole  has  also  a commercial  value,  as  in  recent  years,  owing  to 
the  gradually  decreasing  number  of  wild  fur-bearing  animals,  mole- 
skins have  found  a ready  market.  It  is  significant  of  our  lack  of 
attention  to  small  business  matters,  however,  that  American  mole- 
skins are  not  quoted  or  offered  on  the  markets.  All  the  skins  used 
by  our  furriers  are  imported  from  Europe.  Auction  lists  of  fur 
dealers  in  London  show  that  more  than  3,000,000  moleskins  were  sold 
in  1911,  1912,  and  1913.  Recently  a small  lot  of  American  mole- 
skins secured  by  the  Biological  Survey  was  prepared  and  made  up  by 
an  expert  furrier,  who  pronounced  them  in  every  respect  equal  or  even 
superior  to  European  skins.  It  seems  likely,  therefore,  that  a new 
industry  amounting  to  many  thousands  of  dollars  annually  might  be 
developed  in  this  country.  As  the  price  of  labor  in  the  United  States 
is  higher  than  in  Europe,  it  is  possible  that  for  the  present  the  farmer* 
boy  may  be  the  chief  beneficiary  of  the  new  industry. 

o 


WASHINGTON  : GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  ; 1914 


A/y\  3 ^ 

us. DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  (Agricultural  Forecasts)  and  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 


March  23,  1914. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 


ocks  of  Grain  on  Farms  March  1 1 

cciiracy  of  Estimates  of  Stocks  of  Grain 2 

lipments  of  Grain  out  of  Counties  where  Grown 3 

eparing  Seed  Corn  for  Planting  (by  C.  P.  Hartley) 4 

le  Preparation  of  Seed  Grain  for  Spring  Planting  (by  M.  A.  Carleton) 6 

ages  of  Farm  Labor.  * 7 

ours  of  Farm  Hired  Labor 9 

■end  of  Prices  of  Farm  Products 10 

due  per  Acre  of  Crop  Production 11 

>ecial  Florida  and  California  Crop  Report 22 


STOCKS  OF  GRAIN  ON  FARMS  MARCH  1. 

/ 

The  Crop  Reporting  Board  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  (AgricuR 
ral  Forecasts)  estimates,  from  reports  of  correspondents  and  agents, 
lat  the  amount  of  wheat  on  farms  March  1,  1914,  was  about 
>1,809,000  bushels  or  19.9  per  cent  of  the  1913  crop,  against 
16,483,000  bushels  or  21.4  per  cent  of  the  1912  crop  on  farms  March 
1913,  and  122,025,000  bushels  or  19.6  per  cent  of  the  1911  crop  on 
rms  March  1,  1912.  About  53.9  per  cent  of  the  crop  will  be  shipped 
it  of  the  counfies  where  grown,  against  61.6  per  cent  of  the  1912 
*op,  and  56.1  per  cent  of  the  1911  crop  so  shipped. 

The  amount  of  corn  on  farms  March  1,  1914,  was  about  866,392,000 
ishels  or  35.4  per  cent  of  the  1913  crop,  against  1,289,655,000 
jshels  or  41.3  per  cent  of  the  1912  crop  on  farms  March  1,  1913,  and 

TIME  OF  ISSUANCE  AND  SCOPE  OF  APRIL  CROP  REPORT. 

On  Tuesday,  April  7,  at  12  noon  (Washington  time),  the  Bureau  of  Statistics 
'Agricultural  Forecasts)  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  will  issue 
a report  upon  the  condition  on  April  1 of  winter  wheat  and  rye.  Details  by  States, 
with  comparisons,  will  appear  in  the  April  issue  of  the  Agricultural  Outlook.  This 
umber  (April)  of  the  Agricultural  Outlook  will  also  give  estimates  of  the  condition 
- April  1 and  losses  during  the  year  from  diseases  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
swine;  losses  from  exposure  of  cattle  and  sheep;  and  the  number  of  breeding  sows 
on  April  1,  1914,  as  compared  with  April  1,  1913,  in  percentages. 

3451G°— 14 1 


2 


FABMJEES^  BULLETIN  584. 


884.069.000  bushels  or  34.9  per  cent  of  the  1911  crop  on  farms  March 
1,  1912.  About  17.2  per  cent  of  the  crop  will  be  shipped  out  of  the 
counties  where  grown,  against  21.8  per  cent  of  the  1912  crop,  and 
20.5  per  cent  of  the  1911  crop  so  shipped.  The  proportion  of  the 
1913  crop  which  is  merchantable  is  about  80.1  per  cent,  against  85 
per  cent  of  the  1912  crop,  and  80.1  per  cent  of  the  1911  crop. 

The  amount  of  oats  on  farms  March  1,  1914,  was  about  419,476,000 
bushels  or  37.4  per  cent  of  the  1913  crop,  against  604,216,000  bushels 
or  42.6  per  cent  of  the  1912  crop  on  farms  March  1,  1913,  and 

289.988.000  bushels  or  31.4  per  cent  of  the  1911  crop  on  farms  March 
1,  1912.  About  26.5  per  cent  of  the  crop  will  be  shipped  out  of  the 
counties  where  grown,  against  30.9  per  cent  of  the  1912  crop,  and 
28.8  per  cent  of  the  1911  crop  so  shipped. 

The  amount  of  barley  on  farms  March  1,  1914,  was  about  44,126,000 
bushels  or  24.8  per  cent  of  the  1913  crop,  against  62,283,000  bushels 
or  27.8  per  cent  of  the  1912  crop  on  farms  March  1,  1913,  and 

24.760.000  bushels  or  15.5  per  cent  of  the  1911  crop  on  farms  March 
1,  1912.  About  48.4  per  cent  will  be  shipped  out  of  the  counties 
where  grown,  against  53.7  per  cent  of  the  1912  crop,  and  57.2  per 
cent  of  the  1911  crop  so  shipped. 

Details  by  States  are  shown  in  the  tables  on  pages  12  to  15. 


ACCURACY  OF  ESTIMATES  OF  FARM  SUPPLIES  OF  WHEAT. 

In  years  past  there  has  been  some  disposition  to  question  the  esti- 
mates made  on  March  1 each  year  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
of  the  stocks  of  wheat  held  on  farms  as  being  too  low,  giving  as  a 
reason  that  the  apparent  supplies  on  July  1 plus  the  apparent  con- 
sumption for  one-third  of  a year  (March  1 to  July  1)  and  exports  from 
March  1 to  July  1 gave  a figure  larger  than  the  estimate  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  as  to  the  stocks  on  farms.  During  the  past  four 
years  these  estimates  have  been  checked  against  data,  collected  after 
the  close  of  the  season,  of  the  marketings  of  wheat  by  farmers,  sup- 
plies on  July  1,  and  the  amount  used  for  seed. 

Table  1 shows  the  apparent  stocks  on  March  1 of  each  of  the  past 
four  years,  based  upon  the  stocks  on  farms  July  1,  the  marketings 
between  March  1 and  July  1,  and  the  amount  used  for  spring  seeding. 


Table  1. 

[In  millions  of  bushels.] 


1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

On  farms  July  1.... 

35 

24 

34 

36 

Spring  seeding 

24 

25 

27 

25 

Marlceted  Mar.  1 to  .Inly  1 by  farmers  . 

95 

80 

109 

94 

Apparent  farm  stock  Mar.  1 

154 

129 

170 

156 

Equal,  in  per  cent  of  crop 

21.1 

20.8 

26.8 

22.8 

Stock  on  farms  Mar.  1 as  reported 

156 

122 

163 

160 

Equal,  in  per  cent  of  crop 

21.4 

19.6 

25.6 

23.4 

THE  AGKICULTUK4L  OUTLOOK. 


3 


Considering  the  difhciilty  involved  in  securing  accurate  data  of 
supplies,  there  is  reasonable  consistency  in  the  figures  above. 

The  total  supplies  of  wheat  in  the  country  at  any  one  time  are  made 
up  of  that  held  on  farms,  that  held  in  interior  mills  and  elcA^ators,  and 
that  held  in  primary  markets.  Stocks  held  at  primary  markets  and  a 
comparatively  few  interior  points  of  large  accumulation  can  be 
counted  and  are  called  ^Sdsible’’  stocks,  and  the  amount  so  held  is 
reported  each  week  in  trade  journals  as  visible  stocks  of  wheat.  But 
no  such  data  are  collected  concerning  stocks  held  in  the  vast  number 
of  small  mills  and  elevators  scattered  throughout  the  country. 

Soon  after  harvest  farmers  market  their  grain  much  faster  than  the 
receipts  of  grain  at  ‘^primary”  or  ‘Visible’’  supply  points  indicate, 
supplies  then  being  accumulated  in  the  uncounted  interior  mills  and 
elevators;  as  the  season  advances,  the  movement  from  farms  slackens, 
but  the  supplies  at  primary  or  “visible”  points  continue  to  be  sup- 
plied largely  by  the  interior  “invisible”  points.  In  other  words,  in 
the  first  part  of  the  crop  season  the  marketings  of  farmers  are  relatively 
greater  than  the  receipts  at  primary  or  “visible”  points,  but  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  crop  season,  from  March  1 to  July  1,  the  marketings 
by  farmers  are  relatively  less  than  the  receipts  at  primary  or  “visible” 
points,  the  interior  “invisible”  points  being  the  intermediate  reservoir. 

Those  who  have  criticized  the  estimates  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  have  evidently  overlooked  this  difference  in  the  relative 
marketings  by  farmers  and  the  movement  to  primary  points.  The 
'unaccounted  stocks  on  March  1 are  held  not  so  much  on  farms  as  in 
the  interior  mills  and  elevators. 


SHIPMENTS  OF  GRAIN  OUT  OF  COUNTIES  WHERE  GROWN. 

In  this  issue  of  the  Outlook  (pp.  12  and  13)  are  published  estimates 
of  the  percentage  of  the  wheat  and  corn  crops  wliich  moves  out  of 
counties  where  grown.  Inquiries  on  this  subject  have  been  made 
yearly  since  1883,  about  30  years;  the  estimates  indicate  approxi- 
mately the  portion  of  the  crops  which  enters  commercial  channels; 
that  is,  which  is  shipped  by  railroads  or  boats. 

The  figm*es  indicate  that  there  has  been  a gradual  increase  in  the 
portion  of  both  the  corn  crop  and  the  wheat  crop  so  handlecL  For, 
by  dividing  the  30  years  into  three  periods  of  10  years  each,  it  is 
observed  that  in  the  eighties  55.1  per  cent  of  the  wheat  crop  moved 
out  of  counties  where  grown;  in  the  nineties,  55.7  per  cent;  and  in  the 
last  decade,  58.1  per  cent. 

So,  in  the  case  of  corn,  in  the  eighties  16.9  per  cent  of  the  crop 
moved  out  of  counties  where  grovm;  in  the  nineties,  19.2  per  cent; 
and  in  the  last  decade,  21.9  per  cent  of  the  crop. 


4 


FARMERS  \ BULLETIN  584. 


This  tendency  of  an  increasing  part  of  the  crop  to  he  carried  by 
railroads  is  undoubtedly  a result  of  the  area  of  production  moving 
westward  faster  than  the  movement  of  the  consuming  area.  The 
East  and  Southeast  have  become  more  and  more  dependent  upon  the 
West  for  their  grain  supplies,  and  thus  more  and  more  of  the  crop  is 
represented  in  interstate  commerce. 


PREPARING  SEED  CORN  FOR  PLANTING. 

By  C.  P.  Hartley, 

Physiologist  in  Charge  of  Corn  Investigations,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 

In  general,  better  seed  corn  is  now  being  used  than  was  planted 
years  ago.  Experience  is  teaching  the  importance  of  good  seed 
selection  and  proper  care.  Every  spring  there  is  a scarcity  of  good 
seed  corn  in  some  sections  of  the  United  States,  and  often  the  defi- 
ciency can  not  be  supphed  from  other  sections  because  the  seed  is 
not  suitable.  This  scarcity  of  good  seed  corn  can  be  prevented  if 
farmers  will  properly  save  enough  seed  for  several  years’  planting. 
When  the  crop  is  good  and  the  corn  matures  perfectly,  sufficient 
seed  for  two  or  three  years’  planting  should  be  saved. 

The  past  year  was  unusually  favorable  in  some  States,  and  in 
those  States  seed  should  be  retained  for  1915.  The  exercise  of  such 
foresight  from  year  to  year  is  greatly  improving  the  general  quality 
of  the  seed  corn  planted.  Farmers  in  several  States  which,  because 
of  severe  drought  last  summer,  averaged  but  very  few  bushels  of 
corn  per  acre  are  now  very  much  better  supplied  with  acclimated 
seed  corn  than  they  would  have  been  years  ago  under  like  circum- 
stances. 

SHOULD  OLD  OR  NEW  SEED  BE  PLANTED? 

Many  inquiries  have  been  received  in  regard  to  the  comparative 
values  of  the  seed  corn  of  1912  and  1913.  Other  things  being  equal, 
new  seed  should  be  planted.  If,  however,  the  season  of  1913  was 
unfavorable  to  production  or  the  proper  maturing  of  the  corn,  while 
the  season  of  1912  was  more  favorable,  the  old  seed  will  produce  the 
better.  When  selected  early,  promptly  dried,  and  properly  cared  for, 
seed  corn  retains  its  vitality  and  productivity  for  several  years. 

SHOULD  THE  GERMINATING  POWER  OF  EACH  EAR  BE  TESTED’ 

If  from  corn  that  matured  w^ell,  seed  is  selected  from  standing 
stalks  as  soon  as  matured  and  is  then  promptly  dried  and  kept  dry, 
it  will  germinate  aU  right. 

Test  50  or  100  ears.  Use  the  rag-doll  method,  a box  of  damp 
sawdust  or  sand,  or  any  of  the  methods  that  have  been  so  often 


THE  AGEICULTUKAL  OUTLOOK. 


5 

described.  The  testing  can  l)e  done  in  the  kitchen.  It  is  merely 
necessary  to  keep  the  seed  moist  and  warm  for  about  six  days. 
During  the  day  the  kernels  should  be  fully  as  warm  as  a comforta- 
ble living  room.  It  is  not  necessary  to  keep  them  at  a uniform 
temperature,  but  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  heated  or 
to  freeze.  If  the  selected  ears  aU  germinate  well  the  remainder  of 
the  supply  that  has  been  equally  well  cared  for  need  not  be  tested. 

No  farmer  can  afford  to  plant  an  ear  that  is  weak.  It  will  pro- 
duce weak,  unproductive,  and  unprofitable  stalks. 

Corn  smut  can  not  be  prevented  by  treating  the  seed  corn. 

A PRACTICAL  METHOD  OF  GRADING  SEED  CORN. 

Seed  corn  can  not  be  successfully  graded  by  the  ordinary  fanning 
mill  or  seed  grader.  It  can,  however,  be  successfully  graded  before 
the  kernels  are  removed  from  the  ears.  All  farmers  realize  the 
advantage  of  a uniform  stand  of  stalks.  No  corn  planter  will  drop 
the  same  number  of  kernels  in  every  hill  unless  they  are  uniform  in 
size  and  shape.  Before  shelling,  the  ears  should  be  divided  into  two 
classes — those  having  medium-sized  kernels  and  those  having  large- 
sized kernels. 

SHELL  THE  SEED  CORN  BY  HAND. 

The  members  of  the  staff  of  the  Office  of  Corn  Investigations  have 
used  shellers  of  many  makes,  sizes,  and  patterns,  and  are  agreed  that 
it  is  advisable  and  profitable  to  shell  seed  corn  by  hand.  The  first 
operation  consists  in  removing  from  the  ears  and  discarding  all  kernels 
of  poor  size,  shape,  or  appearance.  The  small,  partially  developed 
kernels  from  the  tips  of  ears  produce  small,  unproductive,  and  barren 
stalks. 

An  ear  is  then  shelled  into  a sieve,  thus  separating  the  chaff  from 
the  kernels.  By  this  means  the  kernels  from  each  ear  can  be 
inspected,  and  if  in  any  way  objectionable  they  can  all  be  easily 
discarded.  This  opportunity  is  lost  if  ears  are  run  through  a sheller, 
and  shellers  usually  break  or  crack  some  of  the  kernels, 

TESTING  THE  DROP  OF  THE  COP.N  PLANTER, 

Corn  kernels  are  larger  some  seasons  than  others.  The  proper 
planter  plates  should  be  chosen,  tested,  and  tied  to  the  sack  con- 
taining the  kind  of  kernels  which  they  drop  satisfactorily.  It  is 
important  to  have  these  jmeliminaries  well  attended  to  early,  so  that 
delays  vdll  not  occur  when  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  for  planting. 


6 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  584. 

THE  PREPARATION  OF  SEED  GRAIN  FOR  SPRING  PLANTING. 

By  M,  A.  Carleton, 

Cerealist,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 

CLEANING  AND  GRADING. 

Seed  grain  should  be  carefully  cleaned  and  graded  before  sowing. 
This  work  is  ordinarily  done  with  the  fanning  mill,  the  light  kernels 
and  some  of  the  trash  being  blown  out  by  a current  of  air,  while  the 
small  kernels  and  most  of  the  weed  seeds  are  removed  by  means  of 
screens.  Many  of  the  light  or  small  kernels  will  not  germinate  at 
all,  while  others  will  produce  only  weak  plants  which  mature  little  or 
no  seed.  The  removal  of  the  weed  seeds  helps  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  weeds  and  favors  the  growth  of  the  grain  crop. 

The  cleaning  and  grading  process  is  also  of  assistance  in  preventing 
disease,  as  it  removes  many  smut  balls  and  diseased  kernels.  The 
proportion  of  the  seed  which  should  be  removed  depends  very  largely 
on  its  c(uality.  If  it  is  poor,  light,  or  chaffy,  a much  larger  propor- 
tion should  be  taken  out  than  if  it  is  plump  and  heavy. 

WHEAT. 

To  prepare  seed  wheat  for  sowing  two  precautions  are  to  be 
observed:  First,  run  the  grain  through  a fanning  mill  in  order  to 
obtain  a uniformly  good  grade  of  seed.  The  wind  will  remove  prac- 
tically all  smut  balls  and  light  weed  seed,  while  the  heavier  small 
seeds  of  weeds  will  pass  through  the  sieves.  Second,  all  seed  wheat 
should  be  treated  for  the  prevention  of  bunt  or  stinking  smut  and 
other  preventable  diseases. 

The  following  method  of  seed  treatment,  if  carefully  applied,  will 
give  satisfactory  results:  Prepare  a solution  of  formalin  by  adding 
standard  commercial  formalin  to  water  in  the  ratio  of  1 pint  to  40 
gallons.  Pour  this  solution  into  a tank  of  convenient  capacity,  say 
24  cubic  feet,  until  the  tank  is  half  full.  Add  grain  to  the  amount  of 
10  bushels,  and  stir  with  a long-handled  shovel  or  hoe.  This  will  float 
smut  balls  to  the  surface  for  removal.  Allow  the  solution  to  act  20 
to  30  minutes.  Then  draw  off  the  solution  into  another  tank  or 
barrel  and  shovel  the  grain  into  sacks  if  it  is  to  be  sown  the  same  day. 
Otherwise  wash  the  treated  grain  with  pure  water  and  spread  out  to 
dry. 

It  has  been  found  that  those  wheats  most  easily  injured  by  the 
thrasher  are  most  susceptible  to  injury  by  formalin  or  bluestone 
treatment.  Therefore  to  reduce  this  seed  injury  to  a minimum  it  is 
advisable  to  wash  the  treated  grain  as  suggested.  Loose  smut  of 
wheat  can  be  prevented,  but  the  method  is  not  easily  practicable. 


THE  AGEICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


7 


OATS. 

To  prepare  oats  for  planting,  run  seed  through  the  fanning  mill  to 
remove  bits  of  straw,  weed  stems,  and  foul  seed.  Then  treat  with  a 
1-40  solution  of  formalin  in  the  following  way:  Put  grain  to  be 
treated  in  coarse  bags  and  immerse  for  20  minutes  in  the  formalin 
solution.  Lift  out  of  barrel  and  allow  to  drain. 

If  it  is  not  convenient  to  sow  on  day  of  treatment,  the  seed  should 
be  dipped  in  pure  water  to  wash  off  the  remaining  formalin.  This 
treatment,  if  properly  carried  out,  will  prevent  oat  smut. 

barley. 

In  pre])armg  barley  seed  for  planting,  the  same  methods  should  be 
employed  as  those  recommended  for  oats.  Barley,  being  somewhat 
more  susceptible  to  formalin  injury  than  other  grains,  should  be 
treated  10  minutes  with  a 1-50  solution  followed  by  washing  in  pure 
water.  This  treatment  will  prevent  covered  smut  of  barley  and 
materially  check  the  ravages  of  the  leaf-stripe  disease. 

FLAX. 

Thoroughly  clean  all  seed  before  sowing.  To  prevent  flax  wilt  and 
other  preventable  diseases,  pile  the  seed  to  be  treated  on  a clean, 
tight  floor  and  apply  a 1-40  solution  of  formalin  at  the  rate  of  2 
quarts  to  the  bushel.  This  will  not  cause  the  seed  to  mat,  but  is 
sufficient  to  moisten  it  thoroughly. 

GRAIN  SORGHUAJS. 

The  seeds  of  kafir,  milo,  feterita,  etc.,  intended  for  planting  this 
spring  should  be  carefully  examined  for  quality.  Prolonged  summer 
drought  in  1913,  aided  by  chinch  bugs  and  grasshoppers  in  some  sec- 
tions, injured  these  crops  quite  seriously  in  a considerable  part  of  the 
sorghum  belt.  Much  of  the  seed  harvested  from  such  fields  was 
immature  or  shrunken  and  will  give  only  poor  stands  if  planted. 

Some  seed  which  was  of  fairly  good  quality  when  harvested  has 
doubtless  been  injured  by  being  allowed  to  heat  in  the  bin  after 
thrashing.  Careful  germination  tests  will  help  to  show  the  planting 
value  of  the  seed  in  hand.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that 
poor  seed  usually  does  not  germinate  as  well  in  the  fields  as  in  tests 
made  in  the  house. 


WAGES  OF  FARM  LABOR. 

The  money  wages  of  farm  labor  increased  about  2.5  per  cent  during 
the  past  year  and  about  1 1 per  cent  during  the  past  four  years.  Since 
1902  the  increase  has  been  about  36  per  cent.  These  estimates  are 
based  upon  reports  of  correspondents  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics 
(Agricultural  Forecasts)  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 


8 


FAEMEES^  BULLETIN  584. 


Wages  of  farm  labor  tended  upward  during  the  decade  of  the 
seventies, _ they  were  almost  stationary  during  the  eighties,  and 
declined  from  1892  to  1894,  since  which  time  they  have  steadily  tended 
upward.  Farm  wages  now,  compared  with  wages  during  the  eighties, 
are  about  55  per  cent  higher;  compared  with  the  low  year  of  1894, 
wages  are  now  about  67  per  cent  higher. 

The  current  average  rate  of  farm  wages  in  the  United  States,  when 
board  is  included,  is,  by  the  month,  $21.38;  by  the  day,  other  than 
harvest,  $1.16;  at  harvest,  $1 .57.  When  board  is  not  included  the  rate 
is,  by  the  month,  $30.31;  by  the  day,  other  than  harvest,  $1.50;  by 
the  day  at  harvest,  $1.94. 

The  premium  of  harvest  wages  over  ordinary  day  wages  on  the 
farm  is  gradually  lessening.  Thirty  years  ago  wages  at  harvest 
averaged  nearly  60  per  cent  higher  than  wages  at  other  than  harvest 
time;  20  years  ago  the  premium  was  about  42  per  cent;  10  years  ago, 
about  35  per  cent:  and  last  year,  about  32  per  cent.  Perhaps  this  is 
duo  in  part  to  improved  labor-saving  harvest  machinery  and  in  part 
to  an  improved  system  of  farming  by  which  the  labor  demand  is  more 
evenly  distributed  through  the  year. 

The  money  wages,  when  board  is  furnished,  is  about  30  per  cent 
loss  than  when  board  .is  not  included;  that  is,  nearly  one-third  of 
what  a man  earns  is  charged  to  board.  This  ratio  has  not  changed 
materially  in  the  past  30  years. 

Wages  in  different  sections  of  the  United  States  vary  widely,  averag- 
ing highest  in  the  far  Western  States  and  lowest  in  the  South  Atlantic 
States.  For  instance,  the  monthly  rate,  without  board,  is  $56.50  in 
Nevada,  $54  in  Montana,  and  $51  in  Utah;  but  $17.90  in  South  Caro- 
lina, $19.60  in  Mississippi,  and  $20.20  in  Georgia.  The  highest 
State  average,  $56.50,  is  thus  seen  to  bo  3.2  times  higher  than  the 
lowest  rate,  $17.90. 

This  wide  difference  in  the  wage  rates  in  different  sections  of  the 
United  States  is  gradually  lessening.  In  seven  investigations  made 
between  1866  and  1881  the  average  of  wages  of  farm  day  labor  (with- 
out board)  in  the  far  Western  States  (where  wages  were  highest)  was 
about  160  per  cent  higher  than  in  the  South  Atlantic  States  (where 
v^ages  were  lowest) ; whereas  in  seven  investigations  made  since  1898  . 
the  Western  States  averaged  about  110  per  cent  higher  than  the 
South  Atlantic,  and  in  the  past  year  they  were  only  about  90  per  cent 
liigher. 

The  money  wages  of  farm  labor  have  increased  relatively  more  than 
wages  for  labor  in  city  manufactories  during  the  past  20  to  30  years. 

A comparison  of  the  average  of  wages  per  employee  in  manufacturing 
industries,  as  reported  by  the  censuses  of  1910,  1900,  and  1890,  indi- 
cates that  the  wages  of  such  employees  increased  22  per  cent  in  10 
years  (1900  to  1910)  and  increased  only  23  per  cent  in  the  20  years; 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


9 


the  increases  in  farm-labor  wages  were  approximately  37  per  cent  in 
the  10  years  and  about  55  per  cent  in  the  20  years.  This  relative 
gain  of  rural  upon  urban  wages  tends  to  check  automatically  the 
movement  from  country  to  cit}/. 

Wages  of  farm  labor  have  been  increasing  rapidly,  not  only  in  the 
United  States,  but  in  most,  if  not  all,  other  countries  of  the  world. 
In  the  central  agricultural  region  of  Russia  the  wage  per  day  paid  to 
male  labor  for  the  years  1901-1905  averaged  34  kopecks  (17.5  cents) 
at  sowing  time,  50  ko.pecks  (25.7  cents)  at  hay  harvest,  and  54 
kopecks  (27.7  cents)  at  wheat  harvest.  By  1910  these  wages  had 
increased  to  55  kopecks  (27.8  cents),  73  kopecks  (37.6  cents),  and  87 
kopecks  (44.8  cents),  respectively.  In  Hungary  the  wages  of  agri- 
cultural laborers  increased  about  60  per  cent  in  the  10  years  from 
1897  to  1907.  In  Denmark,  from  1892  to  1905,  wages  of  farm  labor, 
with  board,  increased  about  30  per  cent,  and  without  board  22  per 
cent.  In  Sweden  wages  of  agricultural  laborers  increased  38  per  cent 
in  the  10  years  from  1898  to  1908.  For  Norway  we  have  data  show- 
ing the  wages  in  country  and  in  towns,  wherein  is  shown  that  wages 
with  board  increased  19  per  cent  in  country  and  15  per  cent  in  towns 
during  the  10  years,  1895  to  1905,  thus  showing  a greater  gain  in 
country  than  in  town  wages.  In  Japan,  where  economic  conelitions 
have  been  changing  rapidly,  the  yearly  money  wages  of  agricultural 
labor  more  than  doubled  in  the  14  years  from  1894  1o  1908  and 
increased  43  per  cent  from  1898  to  1908. 

Although  farm  wages  in  the  United  States  increased  about  37  per 
cent  from  1900  to  1910,  land  values  nearly  doubled  in  the  same  time, 
indicating  that  in  the  distribution  of  the  proceeds  from  farming 
operations  a larger  proportion' now  goes  to  capital  account  and  less  to 
labor  account  than  formerly;  the  interest  rate  of  return  on  the  cap- 
italized value  of  land,  however,  is  probably  less  now  than  25  or  30 
years  ago.  The  value  per  acre  of  crop  production  increased  about 
50  per  cent  from  1900  to  1910. 

A detailed  statement  by  States  of  wages  is  shown  on  pages  16,  17, 
and  18. 


HOURS  OF  FARM  HIRED  LABOR. 

The  average  length  of  time  per  day  required  of  hired  labor  on  farms 
of  the  United  States  during  the  spring  season  is  9 hours  54  minutes; 
during  the  summer  season,  10  hours  54  minutes;  fall  season,  9 hours 
52  minutes;  winter  season,  8 hours  33  minutes.  The  average  for  the 
four  seasons  is  9 hours  48  minutes.  These  estimates  are  based  upon 
reports  of  correspondents  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  (Agricultural 
Forecasts),  Department  of  Agriculture,  shown  in  detail  on  page  19. 

The  State  having  the  longest  working  time  in  the  spring  season  is 
North  Dakota,  10  hours  50  minutes;  followed  by  Wisconsin,  10  hours 
34516°— 14 -2 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  584. 


40  minutes;  and  Minnesota,  10  hours  30  minutes.  The  shortest 
working  day  in  the  spring  is  in  Utah,  9 hours;  followed  by  Arizona 
and  Nevada,  each  with  9 hours  30  minutes. 

In  the  summer  season  Maryland  has  the  distinction  of  the  longest 
working  day,  11  hours  45  minutes;  followed  by  Oklahoma,  11  hours 
25  minutes;  and  Minnesota,  1 1 hours  20  minutes.  Utah  again  has  the 
shortest  working  day,  9 hours  30  minutes,  followed  by  Nevada,  New 
Hampshire,  and  Massachusetts,  each  with  10  hours. 

The  time  required  of  farm  labor  in  the  fall  is  longest  in  North 
Dakota,  11  hours;  followed  by  Minnesota,  10  hours  25  minutes;  and 
South  Dakota,  10  hours  15  minutes.  The  shortest  period  is  in  Utah, 
9 hours;  followed  by  Delaware,  9 hours  25  minutes;  and  Nevada, 
9 hours  30  minutes. 

In  the  winter  season  a day’s  work  is  longest  in  Florida,  9 hours  20 
' minutes;  followed  by  Vermont,  9 hours  15  minutes;  and  New  Hamp- 
shire, 9 hours  10  minutes.  The  shortest  period  in  winter  is  in  Utah, 
7 houi’s  55  minutes;  followed  by  North  Dakota  and  Indiana,  each 
with  8 hours  5 minutes;  and  Wyoming  and  Idaho,  8 hours  10 
minutes. 

By  combining  the  separate  estimates  of  the  four  seasons,  we  find 
Wisconsin  ranking  first,  10  hours  16  minutes;  Minnesota  and  North 
Dakota  close  behind,  each  with  10  hours  15  minutes;  followed  by 
Maryland,  with  10  hours  7 minutes;  and  South  Dakota,  9 hours  59 
minutes.  The  shortest  period  is  credited  to  Utah,  8 hours  51  minutes ; 
followed  by  Nevada,  9 hours  21  minutes ; Arizona,  9 hours  26  minutes; 
Ohio,  9 hours  30  minutes;  and  Wyoming,  9 hours  31  minutes. 

It  thus  appears  that  farm  hired  labor  is  required  to  work  longest 
m the  section  including  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  North  and  South 
Dakota ; and  shortest  in  the  Eocky  Mountain  States,  including  Utah, 
Nevada,  Arizona,  and  Wyoming. 


TREND  OF  PRICES  OF  FARM  PRODUCTS. 

The  level  of  prices  paid  producers  of  the  United  States  for  the  prin- 
cipal crops  increased  about  1.3  per  cent  during  February;  in  the  past 
six  years  the  price  level  has  increased  during  February  1.7  per  cent; 
thus,  the  increase  this  year  is  less  than  usual. 

On  March  1 the  index  figure  of  crop  prices  was  about  18.1  per  cent 
higher  than  a year  ago,  but  7.5  per  cent  lower  than  two  years  ago  and 
4.8  per  cent  higher  than  the  average  of  the  past  six  years  on  March  1. 

The  level  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of  the  United  States  for  meat 
animals  increased  3.1  per  cent  during  the  month  from  January  15  to 
February  15,  which  compares  with  an  increase  of  4.7  per  cent  in  the 
same  period  a year  ago,  an  increase  of  1.8  per  cent  two  years  ago,  a 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


11 


decrease  of  3.4  per  cent  three  years  ago,  and  an  increase  of  0.6  per  cent 
four  years  ago. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  advance  in  prices  in  meat  animals  in  the 
past  month  this  year  has  been  greater  than  usual. 

On  February  15  the  average  (weighted)  prices  of  meat  animals, 
hogs,  cattle,  sheep,  and  chickens,  was  $7.27  per  100  pounds,  which  is 
8.6  per  cent  higher  than  the  prevailing  price  a year  ago,  31.3  per  cent 
higher  than  two  years  ago,  17.5  per  cent  higher  than  three  years  ago, 
and  8.4  per  cent  higher  than  four  years  ago  on  February  15. 

A tabulation  of  prices  is  shown  on  pages  20  and  21. 


VALUE  PER  ACRE  OF  CROP  PRODUCTION. 

The  value  per  acre  of  crop  production  in  1913  is  estimated  as 
approximately  $16.31,  which  is  the  highest  average  that  has  been 
recorded  in  any  year  since  such  estimates  have  been  made,  viz,  1866, 
and  compares  with  $15.96  similarly  estimated  for  1912  crops,  $15.51 
for  1911,  $15.52  for  1910,  and  $16.02  for  1909.  Crop  yields  in  1911 
were  very  short  and  in  1913  below  average,  whereas  1912  crops  were 
unusually  large;  but,  by  reason  of  high  prices  when  production  is 
short  and  low  prices  when  production  is  large,  the  value  per  acre  in 
these  years  has  differed  but  slightly. 

In  particular  States,  however,  there  have  been  considerable  varia- 
tions. Value  per  acre  was  lowest  this  year  in  Kansas,  $7,  due  to  the 
severe  drought  last  summer;  the  year  before  Kansas  crops  were 
worth  $10.60  per  acre.  On  the  other  hand,  Iowa  crops  in  1913 
($17.01  per  acre)  were  worth  more  than  in  1912  ($14.30). 

A detailed  statement  by  States  for  the  past  five  years  is  given  on 

page  . These  estimates  are  based  upon  data  ob tamed  for  12 

crops — wheat,  corn,  oats,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  flaxseed,  potatoes, 
hay,  cotton,  rice,  and  tobacco — which  comprise  about  90  per  cent  of 
the  total  crop  area  of  the  United  States  and  represeut  approximately 
the  average  of  all  crops. 

The  trend  of  value  per  acre  of  crop  production  in  the  United  States 
since  r866  is  shown  in  Table  2. 


Table  2, — Value  per  acre  of  12  important  crops,  combined,  in  the  United  States, 

1866-1913.^ 


1913 .I16.31 

1912 15.  96 

1911 15.51 

1903 $12. 62 

1902 12. 07 

1901 11.  43 

1893 $9.50 

1892 10. 10 

1891 11.76 

1883 $10.93 

1882 12.  93 

1881 13.10 

1873 $14. 19 

1872 14.  86 

1871 15.74 

1910 15.  52 

1909 16.02 

1900 10.31 

1899 9. 13 

1890 11.03 

1889 8.99 

1880 13. 01 

1879 13.  26 

1870 15.  40 

1869 14.  67 

1908 15.  32 

1898 9.00 

1888 10.30 

1878 10.  37 

1868 14.  17 

1907 14.  74 

1906 13.  46 

1897 9. 07 

1896 7. 94 

1887 10.14 

1886 9.  41 

1877 12.  01 

1876 10.  80 

1867 15.  09 

1866 14. 17 

1905 13.  28 

1904 13. 26 

1895 8. 12 

1894 9. 06 

1885 9.  72 

1884 9. 95  1 

1 1875 12.  20 

1 1874 13.25 

1 For  years  previous  to  1909  rice  and  flaxseed  are  not  included;  these  omissions  in  1911  made  no  dift'er- 
ence  in  the  average  for  1911  and  only  1 cent  in  1910;  therefore  their  omission  is  practically  negligible  in 
the  results.  Values,  1866  to  1878,  reduced  to  gold  basis. 


12 


FAEMEKS  BULLETIN  584. 


Table  3. — Wheat. — Estimated  stocks  on  farms  and  in  interior  mills  and  ele.cators  and 
price  per  bushel  Mar.  1.  percentage  of  crop  which  moves  out  of  county  where  grown,  by 
States,  and  for  time  indicated. 


State. 

Per  cent 
of  crop  on 
farms  Mar.  1. 

Quantity  on  farms  Mar. 

1 in  thousands  of 
bushels,  i.  e.,  000 

omitted. 

Per  cent  of 
crop  shipped 
out  of  county 
where 
grown. 

Quantity  in  interior 
mills  and  elevators 
Mar.  1,  in  thousands 
of  bushels. 

Price  per 
bushel  to 
producers 
Mar.  1. 

1914 

1913 

1909 

to 

1913 

av. 

1914 

1913 

1909  to 
1913 
aver. 

1914 

■ 

1913: 

i 

'>0- 

yr. 

av. 

1914 

1913 

(revised 

esti- 

mates). 

1912 

1914 

1913 

1909 

to 

1913 

av. 

P.ct 

P.ct 

P.ct 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

P.ct 

P.ct 

P.ct 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Cts. 

as.' 

Cts. 

Me 

35 

25 

34 

35 

25 

38 

0 

0 

0 

0)  ' 

(0 

(Q 

N.  H 

Vt 

12 

22 

38 

0 

0 

5 

0 

0 

0 

0) 

G) 

(') 

100 

95 

104 

Mass 

R.  I 

Conn 

i 

i 

N.  Y 

25 

27 

1,700 

1,404 

1,908 

31 

30 

23 

612 

536 

871' 

97|  101 

102 

N.  J 

21 

20 

25 

294 

300 

398 

30 

33 

25 

0) 

G) 

G) 

94. 

103 

104 

Pa 

30 

27 

33 

6, 570 

6,021 

7,595 

32 

39 

28 

3,935 

3,571 

3,480: 

95 

100 

103 

Del 

21 

19 

23 

336 

361 

415 

53 

51 

54 

0) 

G) 

(^) 

98 

100 

103 

Md 

16 

18 

22 

1,296 

1,620 

2, 228 

56 

62 

62 

1,136 

898 

1,504 

95 

101 

103 

Va 

22 

20 

28 

2,332 

1,720 

2,428 

32 

31 

32 

1,591 

1,.547 

2, 160 

100 

106 

107 

W.  Va : . 

27 

21 

26 

810 

714 

868 

12 

11 

15 

0) 

. G) 

(1) 

101 

102 

106 

N.  C 

28 

25 

30 

1,988 

1,325 

1,688 

4 

4 

5 

0) 

(0 

(') 

no 

111 

115 

s.  c 

20 

20 

24 

200 

140 

264 

1 

1 

2 

C) 

G) 

G) 

124 

115 

122 

Ga 

Fla 

22 

14 

21 

374 

168 

301 

6 

3 

4 

(0 

G) 

(0 

117 

121 

126 

Ohio 

28 

17 

28 

9, 828 

1,666 

7,947 

44 

27 

44 

4, 212 

1,464 

6,154 

92 

102 

103 

Ind 

20 

13 

22 

7,960 

1,313 

6,970 

52 

40 

50 

4,773 

1,210 

5,848 

91 

98 

101 

Ill 

17 

11 

19 

7,123 

1,078 

5,921 

53 

52 

53 

3,770 

982 

7,140 

87 

94 

98 

Mich 

26 

22 

27 

3,328 

1,540 

4,024 

40 

36 

41 

1, 789 

980 

2, 590 

92 

101 

100 

Wis 

36 

34 

32 

1,332 

1,224 

1,052 

24 

21 

17 

476 

463 

651 

83 

82 

93 

Minn 

29 

34 

28 

19,  720 

22,  780 

16, 851 

59 

62 

67 

8,845 

10,  726 

5,707 

83 

79 

94 

Iowa 

26 

32 

32 

4,264 

4,096 

3,282 

58 

58 

39 

1,312 

1,928 

1,590 

79 

79 

88 

Mo 

17 

16 

19 

6,732 

3, 808 

5,108 

43 

53 

48 

5, 542 

4,  275 

6, 137 

87 

95 

98 

N.  Dak 

19 

21 

22 

14,991 

30, 198 

19, 708 

68 

73 

75 

8,674 

24,449 

9, 516 

80 

74 

90 

S.  Dak 

27 

25 

25 

9,180 

13, 050 

9,  799 

65 

70 

72 

6, 795 

8,350 

1,776 

78 

75 

89 

Nehr 

22 

25 

26 

13,  706 

13,  775 

11,838 

62 

69 

66 

6, 856 

4,955 

4,576 

74 

73 

85 

Kans 

12 

18 

18 

10,440 

16,  614 

12, 875 

54 

69 

71 

6,959 

8,306 

4,626 

79 

77 

91 

Ky 

13 

12 

17 

1,287 

828 

1,485 

25 

29 

31 

1,972 

1,166 

2,  .574 

97 

101 

103 

Tenn 

16 

18 

20 

1,344 

1,278 

1,545 

28 

28 

30 

1,428 

920 

1,245 

103 

107 

108 

Ala 

15 

10 

19 

60 

30 

82 

3 

4 

3 

(0 

(0 

G) 

122 

118 

114 

Miss 

12 

22 

12 

13 

1 

0 

La 

Tex 

10 

12 

11 

1,360 

1,320 

938 

48 

50 

32 

2,320 

1,  764 

1,056 

90 

93 

104 

Okla 

8 

13 

13 

1,400 

2,613 

2,  266 

60 

68 

62 

1,575 

3,215 

900 

80 

80 

93 

Ark 

24 

17 

23 

312 

1 53 

238 

14 

13 

8 

(0 

G) 

(0 

87 

90 

97 

Mont 

23 

27 

26 

4,761 

5,  211 

! 2, 5971 

55 

49 

37 

(1) 

G) 

G) 

65 

66 

83 

Wvo 

31 

35 

31 

682 

770 

486: 

25 

20 

9 

G) 

(0 

(1) 

73 

91 

97 

Colo 

24 

19 

24 

2,328 

2,090 

1,987 

55 

48 

49 

(1) 

G) 

G) 

75 

73 

86 

N.  Mex 

15 

15 

18 

ISO 

180 

178 

15 

13 

8 

(0 

(0 

G) 

92 

87 

107 

Ariz 

12 

10 

12 

108 

70 

1 69 

10 

5 

7 

0) 

G) 

G) 

100 

118 

114 

Utah 

28 

32 

31 

1,792 

1,9.52 

1 1,570 

28 

35 

35 

0) 

(0 

G) 

75 

76 

83 

Nev 

28 

29 

28 

308 

319 

j 240' 

20 

20 

14 

G) 

G) 

(0 

91 

101 

106 

Idaho 

19 

25 

22 

2,  679 

3, 650 

2,783 

54 

58 

63 

^ G) 

(1) 

(0 

67 

68 

79 

Wash 

12 

14 

14 

6,396 

7, 518 

5,927 

75 

79 

77 

9, 594 

16,118 

9,633 

77 

77 

85 

Or  eg 

11 

13 

14 

1,727 

2,730 

2,  226 

58 

65 

59 

G) 

G) 

G) 

80 

80 

88 

Cal 

13 

13 

10 

546 

819 

883 

48 

61 

61 

G) 

G) 

i}) 

96 

90 

99 

U.  S 

19.9 

21.4|22.3 

151, 809 

156, 483 

149,024 

53.9 

61.6 

58.1 

98,505 

118,400 

95, 710 

83.1 

80.6 

93.1 

1 Not  estimated  separately,  hut  included  in  total. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK 


13 


Table  4. — Corn. — Estimated  stocks  on  farms  and  price  per  bushel  Mar.  1,  percentage  of 
crop  tvhich  moves  out  of  county  tehere  grown,  and  percentage  of  crop  which  is  of  mer- 
chantable quality,  by  States,  and  for  time  indicated. 


state.  . 

Per  cent  of 
crop  on 
farms 
Mar.  1— 

Quantity  on  farms  Mar.  1, 
in  thousands  of  bushels, 
i.  e.,  000  omitted. 

Per  cent  of 
crop  shipped 
out  of  county 
where 
grown. 

! 

1 

Per  cent  of 
crop  mer- 
chantable. 

Price  t)cr 
bushel  to 
producers 
Mar.  1— 

o3 

CO 

1 1909-1913 

1 aver. 

cc 

o> 

1909-1913 

aver. 

05 

CO 

05  : 

10  - y e a r 

aver.  ' 

05 

fO 

o; 

10  - y e a r 

1 aver.  , ' 

j 

05 

! 

CO 

05 

1 1909-1913 

1 aver. 

P.c. 

p.c. 

P.c. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

P.c. 

P.c. 

P.c. 

P.c. 

P.C. 

P.c. 

Os. 

Cts. 

Maine 

17 

21 

22 

102 

126 

153 

0 

1 

0 

65 

80 

77 

85 

66 

74 

New  Hampshire 

21 

30 

30 

168 

330 

304 

1 

0 

0 

64 

76 

76 

80 

65 

73 

Vermont 

24 

28 

31 

408 

504 

610 

0 

0 

0 

61 

70 

74 

74 

66 

71 

Massachusetts 

28 

34 

33 

532 

714 

667 

1 

0 

1 

72 

82 

77 

79 

68 

73 

Rhode  Island 

47 

48 

41 

188 

240 

184 

1 

2! 

1 

1 

71 

86 

83 

85 

72 

Connecticut 

30 

32 

32 

690 

960 

899 

0 

1 

1 

1 

73 

84 

81 

77 

66 

75 

New  York 

23 

33 

31 

3,450 

6,534 

6,372 

2 

2i 

2 

59 

73 

71 

80 

63 

70 

New  Jersey 

44 

40 

40 

4,796 

4, 160 

4,081 

15 

14| 

15 

88 

90 

86 

77 

64 

()9 

Pennsylvania 

38 

39 

36 

21,698 

24,024 

20, 594 

7 

9 

6 

83 

86 

80 

71 

631 

69 

Delaware 

43 

41 

41 

2,666 

2, 706 

2,467 

35 

36 

38 

85, 

88 

87 

70 

54 

62 

Maryland 

42 

46 

41 

9,282 

11,270 

9,36^ 

20 

25 

29 

80' 

86 

84 

68 

56 

65 

Virginia 

44 

42 

41 

22,660 

19,950 

19,361 

8 

8i 

lOj 

84: 

82 

83 

83 

70 

75 

West  Virginia 

33 

34 

31 

7, 491 

8,330 

6, 380 

4 

5 

5 

81 

84 

77 

86 

68 

76 

North  Carolina 

48 

45 

46 

26, 544 

22,995 

21,387 

3 

3! 

4 

87' 

87 

86 

93 

83 

85 

South  Carolina 

53 

50 

52 

20, 405 

17, 150 

15, 327 

2 

2 

3 

91' 

91 

89 

101 

90 

91 

Georgia 

53 

42 

44 

33, 390 

22,680 

22, 915 

6 

2 

3 

90' 

! 86 

89 

93 

85 

86 

Florida 

42 

37 

34 

37 

4,242 

2, 890 

2,925 

4 

2 

88; 

; 83 

85 

81 

87 

87 

Ohio 

i 44 

39 

54, 131 

76, 736 

60, 145 

23 

23 

24i 

8l! 

88 

81 

63 

49 

57 

Indiana 

37 

! 44 

40 

65,  268 

87,  736 

71,964 

29 

32 

32 

84' 

89 

83 

61 

46 

54 

Illinois 

36 

1 45 

43 

101, 592 

191, 835 

157, 795 

35 

45 

45j 

i 

i 91 

87 

60 

46 

53 

Michigan 

32 

38 

34 

17,952 

20,976 

18,931 

5 

5 

78' 

! 71 

1 73 

66 

52 

59 

Wisconsui 

37 

1 35 

32 

24,  716 

20, 405 

17,054 

5 

2 

3 

78 

! 74 

1 74 

59 

48 

57 

Minnesota 

35 

42 

35 

33,600 

32,  844 

23, 605 

25 

15 

14 

85 

; 74 

70 

50 

38 

48 

Iowa 

37 

45 

43 

125,171 

194,400 

146,983 

30 

33 

I 24 

90 

* 87 

83 

56 

39 

48 

Missouri 

22 

1 '' 

38 

28,402 

97,560 

81, 105 

5 

14 

12 

56 

87 

82 

72 

48 

57 

North  Dakota 

20 

20 

20 

2, 160 

1,760 

1,127 

3 

2 

2 

68 

55 

()5 

57 

49 

58 

South  Dakota 

31 

1 36 

32 

20,863 

27, 468 

18, 684 

35 

42 

26 

89 

71 

80 

54 

37 

47 

Nebraska 

24 

40 

41 

27, 408 

73, 040 

75,316 

15 

20 

37 

83 

80 

89 

60 

43 

48 

Kansas 

6 

36 

34 

1,404 

62, 712 

53, 899 

1 

22 

22 

45 

87 

8(i 

71 

47 

54 

Kentucky 

34 

42 

39 

25, 432 

45,948 

36, 998 

5 

8 

11 

75 

' 85 

83 

79 

61 

67 

Tennessee 

42 

46 

42 

28, 854 

40, 618 

35,  464 

9 

15 

16 

81 

; 88 

87 

82 

65 

69 

Alabama 

47 

45 

43 

26,038 

24, 390 

20, 436 

2 

2 

3 

87 

1 85 

87 

93 

79 

83 

Mississippi 

48 

! 45 

43 

30,240 

25, 560 

20, 419 

4 

3 

3 

89 

88 

87 

81 

75 

79 

Louisiana 

38 

! 37 

38 

15, 884 

12,025 

12,650 

6 

5 

6 

77 

85 

84 

79 

75 

73 

Texas 

30 

1 

31 

48,960 

- 52, 122 

39, 785 

6 

6 

9 

74 

80 

82 

87 

69 

75 

Oklahoma 

18 

i 31 

28 

9,396 

31,589 

24, 854 

12 

22 

23 

65 

78 

' 81 

75 

! 49 

59 

Arkansas 

36 

39 

38 

16,920 

19,695 

19,048 

3 

3 

4 

79 

86 

65 

, 83 

82 

70 

74 

Montana 

28 

30 

19 

252 

ISO 

71 

3 

3 

2 

1 85 

1 81 

92 

98 

Wyoming •. 

Colorado 

17 

35 

21 

i 85 

140 

40 

1 

0 

0 

; 78 

j 50 

! 74 

75 

50 

62 

32 

37 

28 

2,016 

3,219 

1,581:  15 

1 

12 

9 

86 

1 

i '' 

68 

46 

j 

64 

New  Mexico 

18 

! 21 

20 

288 

441 

379 

3 

6 

5 

75 

1 70 

81 

77 

I 

1 <7 

93 

Arizona 

16 

17 

16 

! 80 

85 

71 

' 10 

5 

5 

75 

87 

1 85 

108 

130 

no 

Utah 

Nevada 

16 

20 

20 

t 

j 60 

53 

3 

4 

3 

80 

1 

! 

74 

72 

77 

Idaho 

10 

1 

1 13 

13 

1 40 

I"  . 

40'  3 

2 

2 

87 

78 

87 

73 

76 

80 

W ashtngton 

15 

19 

17 

i 150 

152 

114 

5 

6 

4 

78 

80 

83 

71 

82 

84 

Oregon 

13 

13 

13 

1 78 

; 

68 

2 

2 

2 

80 

80 

81 

77 

1 77 

92 

California 

14 

i 

13 

252 

266 

218,  17 

18 

19 

85 

90 

89 

86 

83 

85 

United  States.. 

35.4  41.3  39.0 

1 i 

-!  866,392 

! 

1 1,289,655 

1,072, 885  17.2 

21.8 

1 

21.9 

80. 1 

85.0 

!83.8 

1 

|(i9. 1 52.  2 

59.7 

14 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  584, 


Table  5. — Oats. — Estimated  stocks  on  farms  and  price  per  bushel  Mar.  1 and  percentage 
of  crop  which  moves  out  of  county  ivhere  grovm,  by  States,  and  for  time  indicated. 


State. 

Per  cent  of  crop 
on  farms  Mar.  1 — 

Quantity  on  farms 
Mar.  1,  in  thousands 
of  bushels,  i.  e.,  000 
omitted. 

Per  cent  of  cron 
shipped  out  of 
county  where 
grown. 

Price  per  bushel 
to  producers 
Mar.  1-^ 

1914 

1913 

1909- 

1913 

aver- 

age. 

1914 

1913 

1909- 

1913 

aver- 

age. 

1914 

1913 

10-yr. 

aver- 

age. 

1914 

1913 

1909- 

1913 

aver- 

age. 

Maine 

P.c. 

P.  c. 

P.  c. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

P.c. 

P.c. 

P.  c. 

C/.U 

Cfs. 

Cfs. 

36 

32 

31 

2, 016 

1,472 

1.480 

2 

2 

2 

60 

50 

56 

New  Hampshire 

28 

35 

32 

112 

175 

140 

3 

0 

0 

57 

49 

55 

Vermont 

38 

39 

37 

1,178 

1,287 

1,0.33 

1 

0 

1 

50 

46 

55 

Massachusetts 

24 

35 

32 

72 

105 

88 

1 

0 

1 

52 

46 

55 

Rhode  Island 

27 

32 

32 

27 

32 

24 

0 

1 

0 

60 

Connecticut 

27 

24 

26 

81 

72 

92 

0 

0 

0 

50 

48 

55 

New  York 

43 

43 

41 

18, 361 

15, 781 

15,863 

7 

4 

7 

47 

41 

49 

New  Jersey 

35 

31 

38 

700 

589 

735 

13 

13 

12 

47 

41 

49 

Pennsylvania 

42 

42 

40 

15,036 

15, 288 

12,966 

5 

6 

7 

47 

42 

50 

Delaware 

25 

25 

26 

25 

25 

29 

10 

9 

10 

45 

40 

45 

Maryland 

26 

25 

26 

338 

,350 

313 

15 

13 

12 

50 

43 

49 

Virginia 

30 

29 

29 

1,260 

1,131 

1,C97 

7 

7 

7 

56 

52 

58 

West  Virginia 

28 

30 

29 

784 

930 

675 

2 

2 

3 

55 

49 

56 

North  Carolina 

20 

19 

21 

900 

722 

732 

2 

2 

3 

60 

61 

65 

South  Carolina 

18 

18 

19 

1.5.30 

1,260 

1,143 

4 

3 

3 

68 

66 

68 

Georgia 

19 

15 

16 

1,748 

1,140 

1,123 

6 

3 

3 

67 

64 

69 

Florida 

15 

11 

17 

135 

77 

104 

2 

2 

3 

65 

63 

74 

Ohio 

36 

41 

37 

19,584 

38,253 

22,  759 

31 

34 

31 

39 

33 

43 

Indiana 

29 

36 

32 

10. 556 

28, 728 

17,  .302 

43 

43 

44 

37 

31 

41 

Illinois 

37 

41 

35 

38,517 

74,907 

50,209 

45 

50 

51 

37 

32 

41 

Michigan 

39 

42 

38 

17,550 

21,  756 

17.548 

23 

21 

26 

39 

33 

43 

Wisconsin 

45 

49 

■ 44 

37, 350 

41,503 

31,722 

17 

20 

18 

36 

31 

41 

Minnesota 

44 

47 

40 

49,544 

57, 763 

34, 168 

28 

27 

29 

32 

27 

38 

Iowa 

40 

47 

41 

67, 360 

102, 366 

63, 152 

44 

47 

39 

34 

28 

37 

Missouri 

28 

37 

36 

7,420 

13,  727 

9, 677 

10 

20 

16 

44 

35 

44 

North  Dakota •. 

47 

58 

48 

27, 166 

55,216 

25,159 

14 

19 

16 

-^31 

26 

38 

South  Dakota 

43 

52 

41 

18, 103 

27, 248 

14,301 

25 

34 

27 

32 

26 

37 

Nebraska 

38 

44 

41 

22, 648 

24, 420 

22, 089 

17 

17 

34 

37 

31 

38 

Kansas 

23 

39 

36 

7, 889 

21,450 

13,485 

2 

15 

14 

' 46 

39 

44 

Kentucky 

23 

28 

28 

736 

1,120 

928 

2 

5 

6 

53 

49 

54 

Tennessee 

26 

24 

25 

1,638 

1,344 

1,396 

15 

20 

17 

59 

52 

56 

Alabama 

14 

13 

15 

938 

676 

684 

2 

2 

2 

67 

64 

68 

Mississippi 

16 

14 

17 

448 

280 

340 

2 

1 

1 

60 

63 

65 

Louisiana 

15 

14 

17 

150 

98 

109 

3 

4 

1 

62 

54 

62 

Texas 

22 

22 

18 

7, 150 

6, 842 

3, 661 

32 

29 

24 

50 

44 

57 

Oklahoma 

25 

32 

27 

4,625 

7,520 

4,627 

18 

22 

22 

49 

40 

51 

Arkansas 

27 

21 

26 

1,728 

735 

1,042 

5 

3 

3 

52 

58 

60 

Montana 

46 

50 

39 

10, 028 

11,450 

6,503 

28 

25. 

34 

35 

35 

46 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

35 

45 

36 

2,940 

3,870 

1,936 

25 

30 

13 

40 

43 

52 

35 

35 

31 

3, 745 

4,340 

3,026 

30 

26 

27 

48 

43 

50 

New  Mexico 

20 

24 

22 

300 

432 

278 

15 

15 

10 

34 

45 

60 

Arizona 

23 

13 

15 

69 

39 

35 

10 

10 

12 

78 

79 

71 

Utah 

32 

40 

34 

1,312 

1,680 

1,215 

31 

24 

26 

40 

45 

51 

Nevada 

31 

27 

25 

155 

108 

87 

16 

23 

14 

55 

52 

63 

Idaho 

32 

38 

31 

4,832 

6,460 

3,817 

41 

43 

44 

33 

29 

44 

Washington 

33 

30 

26 

4,686 

4,110 

3,228 

45 

49 

41 

40 

39 

48 

Oregon 

33 

31 

28 

5,016 

4,247 

3,248 

32 

34 

35 

39 

41 

49 

California 

15 

14 

13 

990 

1,092 

862 

50 

50 

40 

45 

57 

55 

United  States.. 

37.4 

42.6 

37.1 

419, 476 

604, 216 

396, 230 

26.5 

30.9 

29.6 

38.9 

33.1 

42.6 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK 


15 


Table  G. — Barley. — Estimated  stocks  on  farms  and  price  per  bushel  ^far.  1,  percentage  of 
crop  which  moves  out  of  county  ivhere  grown,  by  States,  and  for  time  indicated. 


State. 

Per  cent  of  crop 
on  farms  Mar.  1— 

Quantity  on  farms 
Mar.  1,  in  thousands 
of  bushels,  i.  e.,  000 
omitted. 

Per  cent  of  ero]> 
shipped  out  of 
county  where 
grown. 

i 

Price  per  bushel 
to  producers 
Mar.  1— 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1914 

1913 

1909- 

1913 

aver- 

age. 

P.  c. 

P.  c. 

P.  c. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

P.c. 

P.  e. 

P.  c. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Ct^. 

Maine 

20 

23 

21 

28 

23 

21 

1 

1 

2 

76 

77 

82 

New  Hampshire 

20 

25 

27 

6 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

80 

90 

82 

Vermont 

25 

25 

28 

96 

100 

112 

1 

0 

0 

75 

80 

80 

New  Y ork 

23 

33 

20 

473 

693 

400 

16 

20 

32 

71 

66 

77 

Pennsylvania 

27 

28 

34 

49 

56 

68 

7 

10 

0 

75 

73 

70 

Maiyland 

14 

10 

10 

20 

10 

10 

5 

5 

1 

62 

75 

64 

Virginia 

17 

18 

10 

49 

36 

20 

6 

7 

1 

70 

68 

67 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

Ohio 

27 

32 

12 

259 

192 

60 

28 

38 

51 

56 

55 

68 

Indiana 

22 

30 

17 

44 

90 

34 

45 

40 

25 

50 

58 

63 

Illinois 

28 

38 

19 

393 

684 

285 

40 

41 

45 

56 

49 

65 

Miehigan 

25 

27 

14 

527 

621 

308 

21 

25 

33 

65 

59 

68 

Wiseonsin 

33 

33 

14 

5,981 

8, 184 

2, 926 

42 

41 

63 

53 

49 

71 

Minnesota 

31 

34 

17 

10, 788 

14,280 

4,760 

53 

60 

65 

47 

43 

64 

Iowa 

23 

29 

20 

2,  .300 

4, 234 

2,200 

60 

60 

65 

52 

52 

65 

Missouri 

20 

35 

25 

22 

35 

25 

0 

19 

15 

66 

70 

North  Dakota 

27 

31 

18 

6,885 

10,912 

3,690 

50 

65 

55 

40 

37 

57 

South  Dakota 

23 

25 

15 

3, 856 

5,  775 

825 

61 

64 

50 

45 

39 

62 

Nebraska 

21 

31 

14 

370 

775 

182 

21 

16 

50 

48 

43 

54 

Kansas 

25 

44 

20 

486 

1,804 

320 

20 

20 

5 

54 

40 

61 

Kentucky 

7 

9 

6 

6 

9 

6 

5 

20 

2 

70 

74 

Tennessee 

6 

5 

17 

3 

0 

17 

10 

0 

20 

90 

75 

81 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

15 

26 

10 

25 

52 

10 

10 

15 

22 

73 

78 

91 

Oklahoma 

12 

15 

10 

8 

30 

10 

5 

16 

15 

77 

! 55 

57 

Arkansas 

Montana 

30 

44 

35 

558 

616 

385 

40 

38 

47 

55 

1 56 

66 

Wyoming 

25 

45 

25 

99 

180 

100 

5 

25 

10 

64 

i 68 

73 

Colorado 

25 

35 

15 

812 

1,050 

315 

20 

25 

35 

56 

i ® 

64 

New  Mexico 

20 

12 

15 

19 

12 

15 

10 

10 

5 

75 

76 

Arizona 

19 

24 

15 

282 

336 

195 

40 

20 

62 

60 

78 

78 

Utah 

25 

29 

15 

289 

319 

150 

35 

30 

45 

55 

60 

65 

Nevada 

25 

30 

25 

123 

150 

125 

10 

20 

15 

80 

80 

81 

Idaho 

23 

25 

15 

1,739 

1,725 

900 

45 

31 

60 

50 

46 

57 

Washington 

23 

20 

16 

1,677 

1,580 

1,040 

68 

50 

65 

51 

51 

64 

Oregon 

21 

24 

20 

882 

1,032 

780 

31 

40 

28 

57 

55 

66 

California 

15 

16 

11 

4,972 

6,688 

4,466 

50 

60 

60 

60 

66 

71 

United  States.. 

24.8 

27.8 

15.5 

44, 126 

62,283 

24,  760 

48.4 

53.7 

57.2 

51.1 

’ 49.0 

61.5 

IG 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  584, 


Table  7 — Wages  of  male  far  in  labor. 


state  and  division. 

Per  month  with  ])oard. 

l^er  month  without  board. 

1913 

1909 

1899 

1893 

1 

1913  ! 

1909  1 

1 

1899  1 

i 

189.3 

Maine 

$25.  50 

$26.  71 

$18.  00 

$18.  20 

$36.00 

$37. 38 

.$26. 58 

$26.  .39 

New  Hampshire 

24.  70 

25.18 

18.48 

18.96 

38.  60 

37.  92 

28.22 

28.  72 

Vermont 

26.  30 

25.93 

18.  74 

18.20 

37.00 

36.51 

27.  49 

25.55 

Massachusetts 

25. 50 

26.  52 

18.  32 

18.  55 

42. 00 

41.40 

31.2.5 

31.15 

Rhode  Island 

25.00 

24.62 

18. 35 

19.14 

39.  40 

43.11 

30. 56 

30. 58 

Connecticut 

23.90 

24.61 

17.  52 

18.  21 

.39.  .30 

36.92  ! 

.30.  28 

32. 32 

New  York 

25.50 

24.78 

17. 52 

18. 91 

.36.  20 

33.64 

24.88 

26. 64 

New  Jersey 

21.20 

20.  50 

15. 19 

14.74 

35.50 

32.  01 

25.  .30 

24.83 

Pennsylvania 

20.  60 

19. 69 

14.32 

14. 19 

32.00 

29.45 

22.  71 

22.84 

Delaware 

17.20 

17. 12 

11.98 

12.23 

1 26.00 

26.14 

18.  55 

19.54 

Maryland 

17. 30 

15.96 

11.53 

11.77 

26.50 

23.82 

17.  92 

18. 30 

Virginia 

16. 10 

15.00 

10.  43 

9.84 

j 23. 50 

21.11 

14.82 

14.40 

West  Virginia 

21.20 

20. 33 

13.55 

12.  82 

30.  50 

28.05 

19.85 

19.06 

North  Carolina 

15.90 

14.05 

8. 56 

8.62 

1 22. 30 

19.  55 

12.  39 

12.56 

South  Carolina 

13.  40 

11.96 

7. 34 

7.92 

1 17. 90 

15.71 

10.06 

10.96 

Georgia 

14.30 

13.21 

8.a5 

8.99 

20.20 

18. 33 

11.38 

12. 54 

Florida 

17.  90 

17.86 

11.32 

11.67 

! 26. 70 

26.64 

17.40 

18.  24 

Ohio 

22.70 

21.35 

15.27 

15.40 

1 32. 20 

28.  84 

22.14 

21.99 

Indiana 

22.  30 

21.40 

15.45 

15.69 

i 30. 20 

27.  91 

21.87 

21.87 

IllinoLs 

25.30 

24.52 

17.  76 

18. 08 

! .33.  .30 

31.31 

24.34 

24.79 

Michigan 

24.90 

24.36 

16.95 

17.  54 

35.00 

32.96 

24.12 

25.13 

W isconsin 

28. 10 

27. 52 

19.20 

18.  58 

1 39.80 

.36.  92 

27.68 

26.96 

Mmnesota 

28.90 

28. 30 

19.98 

18.78 

1 41.00 

38.90 

29.  46 

27.  81 

Iowa 

30.  70 

28.14 

19.  .32 

19.  46 

40.  20 

.36. 19 

27.09 

27. 16 

Missouri 

21.60 

20.  56 

14.57 

14.56 

29.  40 

27.  74 

20.  44 

20. 57 

North  Dakota 

31.00 

32.  33 

21.82 

22.  27 

1 42. 50 

45.  96 

32.  84 

33.28 

South  Dakota 

30.00 

30. 38 

20.41 

20.  24 

i 43. 00 

40.  75 

30.  58 

29.17 

Nebraska 

26.90 

27. 50 

18.  87 

17.  96 

38.  40 

37.  98 

27.  40 

26.  27 

Kansas 

24.00 

25.21 

17.46 

16.  27 

1 33. 70 

34.79 

25.24 

24.00 

Kentuckj^ 

17.40 

17. 13 

12.  24 

11.98 

24.00 

22.38 

16.64 

16.  67 

Tennessee 

15.80 

14.98 

10.  .33 

10. 10 

22.  30 

20. 36 

14.21 

14.02 

Alabama 

14.40 

13.19 

8.  63 

9.12 

20. 30 

18.  63 

12. 56 

13.05 

Mississippi 

13.60 

14.21 

9.  27 

9.  78 

19.60 

19.  79 

13.17 

13.54 

Louisiana 

14.00 

13.94 

10.  30 

11.44 

20.  70 

19.  54 

14.88 

i 15.96 

Texas 

19.20 

18.47 

12.-94 

13.58 

27.  .50 

25.14 

17.98 

18. 96 

Oklahoma 

20.00 

20. 87 

14.52 

14.85 

29.10 

28.70 

21.55 

21.47 

Arkansas 

17.00 

16.31 

10.  54 

11.56 

24.50 

22.  68 

15.09 

16.86 

Montana 

37.20 

38.05 

32.12 

.32.09 

54.00 

53.  32 

42.  78 

, 45.17 

Wyoming 

34.70 

34.53 

29.  64 

30.48 

49.20 

43.98 

42.  54 

43.03 

Colorado 

29. 10 

31.53 

23.  23 

23.42 

44.30 

45.59 

34.36 

35.18 

New  Mexico 

24.80 

25.62 

18.  45 

18.  76 

36.00 

.34. 17 

25.22 

27.47 

Arizona 

35.00 

35.28 

28.23 

26. 12 

48. 50 

48.24 

38.26 

38.88 

Utah 

38. 50 

40.  77 

25.72 

24.  65 

51.00 

56.12 

34.43 

3.3.  29 

Nevada 

39.  70 

40.  30 

31.76 

30. 58 

56.50 

54.  95 

45.10 

43.33 

Idaho 

36.00 

39.38 

28. 13 

27.  28 

50.  00 

51.64 

39.39 

37.76 

Washington 

33.20 

.35.  43 

25.06 

24.11 

48.  40 

48.  .54 

36.  77 

35.  43 

Oregon 

31.00 

33.11 

22.  89 

21.99 

44.50 

43.  98 

31.23 

30. 58 

California 

35.10 

34.17 

25.64 

26.37 

50.70 

47.  30 

36.  87 

38.25 

United  States 

21.38 

20. 01 

13.90 

13.85 

30.31 

27.  43 

19.97 

19.97 

North  Atlantic 

23.45 

23.26 

16.60 

17.10 

35.29 

33.  68 

25.44 

26. 11 

South  Atlantic 

15.88 

14.  42 

9.26 

9.37 

22.  62 

20. 13 

13.35 

13.57 

North  Central 

25.  56 

24.66 

17. 36 

17. 16 

.35.  23 

32.90 

24.75 

24.40 

South  Central 

16.  70 

15.91 

10.  97 

11.01 

; 23.85 

21.8.5 

15.  47 

15.  45 

Western 

33.52 

34.44 

25. 19 

i 24. 48 

48. 17 

47.24. 

35.64 

35.32 

THE  AGEICULTUEAL  OUTLOOK, 


17 


Table  8. — Wages  of  male  farm  labor. 


State  and  division. 


Maine 

New  Hampshke 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Khode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolma 

Georgia - 

Florida 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

North  Dakota 

South  Dakota 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Oklahoma 

Arkansas 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

New  Mexico 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washington 

Oregon 

California 

United  States 

North  Atlantic 

South  Atlantic 

North  Central 

South  Central 

Western 


Per  day  at 
harvest  with 
board. 

Per  day  at 

1 harvest  without 
board. 

i Per  day  other 

1 than  harvest 
with  board. 

Per  day  other 
than  harvest 
without  l)oard. 

1913 

1909 

1893 

1913 

1909 

1893 

1913 

1909 

1893 

1913 

1 

1909 

1893 

$1.71 

,$1. 03 

551.  20 

$2. 12 

§2.  02 

$1.46 

81. 35 

.$1.  28 

81.  00 

$1.  74 

'$1.59 

■11.25 

1.70 

1.71 

1.29 

2.  15 

2.12 

1.64 

1.39 

1.31 

1.02 

1.79 

1.70 

1.31 

1.71 

1.73 

1.60 

2.  00 

2.14 

1.90 

1 1.31 

1.21 

1.05 

1.  65 

1.54 

1.26 

l.Cl 

l.GO 

1.31 

2.  08 

2.03 

1.71 

! 1.39 

1.04 

1.08 

1.87 

1.09 

1.41 

1.53 

1.50 

1.07 

2.00 

1.94 

1.49 

1.25 

1.12 

.91 

1.72 

1.00 

1.28 

1.55 

1.44 

1.35 

1.95 

1.85 

1.  75 

1.25 

1. 14 

.99 

1.75 

1.54 

1.34 

l.SO 

1.77 

1.  45 

2.  .30 

2.  07 

1.74 

1.41 

1.20 

.99 

1.82 

1.59 

1.27 

1.  78 

1.71 

1.58 

2.  25 

2.  08 

1.98 

1 1.23 

1.09 

.98 

l.()7 

1.47 

1 1.30 

1.53 

1.42 

1.19 

1.94 

1.82 

1.49 

i 1.17 

1.04 

.81 

1.58 

1.41 

1.09 

I.-IO 

1.38 

1.12 

1.74 

l.Cl 

1.38 

! .94 

.95 

.71 

1. 19 

1.14 

1 .92 

1 30 

1.31 

1 15 

1.  G5 

1.  54 

1.  42 

i .91 

. 90 

.64 

1.  22 

1. 17 

.89 

1. 12 

.95 

1.52 

1.37 

1.18 

j .86 

.74 

.49 

1. 11 

.96 

.08 

1.31 

1.21 

.98 

1.73 

1.53 

1.  20 

1.04 

.89 

.62 

1..36 

1.  IS 

.82 

1.13 

1.01 

.80 

1.40 

1.20 

.95 

.83 

.70 

.46 

1.06 

.89 

.58 

1.03 

.94 

.09 

1.29 

1.00 

.81 

.73 

.60 

.44 

.91 

.71 

.52 

1.10 

.90 

.70 

1.38 

1.12 

.90 

.82 

.71 

.49 

1.04 

.91 

.60 

1.12 

1.00 

.75 

1.40 

1.40 

.98 

.98 

.86 

.71 

1.30 

1.21 

.87 

1.81 

1.G7 

1.21 

2.  23 

2.  02 

1.44 

1.33 

1.18 

.85 

1.71 

1.47 

1.07 

1.80 

l.GO 

1.29 

2.  20 

1.97 

1.53 

1.25 

1.  13 

.81 

1.59 

1.38 

1.01 

1.93 

1.84 

1.33 

2.  33 

2.11 

1.00 

1.39 

1.33 

.91 

1.73 

1.  50 

1.14 

1.91 

1.75 

1.33 

2.37 

2. 13 

1.62 

1.41 

1.26 

.93 

1.82 

i.’C2 

1.19 

I 1.90 

1.79 

1.27 

2.  36 

2.19 

1.56 

1.46 

1.35 

.96 

1.93 

1.70 

1.24 

2.43 

2.  23 

1.56 

2.  83 

2.59 

1.87 

1.67 

1.53 

1.02 

2.14 

1.88 

1.20 

2.25 

2.  08 

1.33 

2.62 

2.43 

1.64 

1.70 

1..53 

1.00 

2. 13 

1.82 

1.29 

1.57 

1.50 

1.10 

1.95 

1.81 

1.33 

1.08 

1.00 

.08 

1.39 

1.27 

.89 

2.70 

2.  58 

1.73 

3.  35 

3.17 

2.11 

1.85 

1.66 

1.13 

2..^0 

2.14 

1.46 

2.37 

1 2.38 

1.57 

2.  90 

2.  82 

1.92 

1. 69 

1.  69 

1. 11 

2.  22 

2. 19 

1.42 

2.19 

i 2.22 

1.13 

2.  68 

2.59 

1.46 

1.57 

1.58 

.93 

2.  06 

1.94 

1.20 

2.14 

i 2.17 

1.15 

2.48 

2.43 

1.44 

1.  35 

1.44 

.85 

1.75 

1.73 

1.10 

1.36 

1 1.31 

1.11 

1.68 

1.56 

1.34 

.87 

.82 

.59 

1.13 

1.00 

.70 

1.18 

1.11 

.93 

1.47 

1.34 

1.08 

.81 

.74 

.51 

1.03 

.92 

.64 

1.00 

.89 

.71 

1.26 

1.12 

.86 

.83 

.68 

.51 

1.04 

.87 

.62 

.93 

.89 

.62 

1.10 

1.13 

.75 

.85 

. 75 

.52 

1.08 

.96 

. 64 

1.00 

.92 

.79 

1.28 

1.10 

.95 

.85 

.79 

.62 

1.10 

1.00 

.80 

1.30 

1.20 

.93 

1.63 

1.44 

1.11 

1.08 

.93 

.72 

1.34 

1.10 

.90 

l.GO 

1.61 

.94 

2.00 

1.81 

1.18 

1.10 

1.12 

.71 

1.47 

1.37 

.93 

1.24 

1.11 

.84 

1.53 

1.37 

1.04 

.92 

.83 

.56 

1.18 

1. 05 

.73 

2.  21 

2.  23 

l.Gl 

2. 90 

2.  58 

2. 04 

1.76 

1.68 

1.29 

2.  52 

2.31 

1.76 

1.94 

1.99 

1.  57 

2.  54 

2. 33 

1.93 

1.59 

1.54 

1. 18 

2.  22 

2.  04 

1.56 

1.75 

1.80 

1.23 

2. 27 

2.  26 

1.09 

1.  .36 

1.44 

1.00 

1.95 

1.87 

1.39 

1.37 

1.28 

1.01 

1.74 

1.62 

1.33 

1.13 

1.  00 

.85 

1.53 

1.39 

1.11 

1.88 

1.73 

1.54 

2.31 

2. 13 

1.91 

1.46 

1..35 

1.02 

2. 00 

1.74 

1.37 

1.90 

2. 00 

1.22 

2.37 

2. 38 

1.48 

1.75 

1.61 

1.06 

2.15 

2.  07 

1.28 

2. 05 

2.  04 

1.56 

2.  75 

2.  40 

2.11 

1.65 

1.42 

1.14 

2. 38 

1.60 

2.31 

2.17 

1.55 

2.  70 

2.  72 

1.75 

1.72 

1.70 

1.14 

2.32 

2.  22 

1..54 

2.41 

2.  34 

1.50 

2. 90 

2.  58 

1.87 

1.67 

1.60 

1.08 

2.  20 

2.  25 

1.51 

2.09 

2.00 

1.42 

2.  GO 

2.  29 

1.79 

1.48 

1.42 

.90 

1.  98 

1.79 

1.29 

1.97 

2.  01 

1.C9 

2.48 

2.31 

2.  08 

1.44 

1.43 

1.05 

2.01 

1.94 

1.47 

1.57 

1.43 

1.07 

1.94 

1.71 

1.30 

1.16 

1.03  i 

.72 

1.50 

1.29 

.92 

1.07 

1.G2 

1.36 

2.12 

1.98 

1.68 

1.30 

1.16 

. 95  1 

1.71 

1.  53 

1.24 

1.16 

J.03 

.83 

1.45 

1.25 

1.00 

.85 

.73 

.50 

1.09 

.93 

.04 

2.  00 

1.87 

1.28 

2.42 

2.21 

1.55 

1.42 

1.32 

.89 

1.83 

1.  62 

1. 13 

1.21 

1.10 

.84 

1.51 

1.34 

1.01 

.93 

.82 

.57  i 

1.18 

1.02 

.72 

2. 02 

2.  02 

1.48 

2. 53 

2.51 

1.86 

1.52 

1.48 

1.02  i 

2.  07 

1.97 

1.39 

18 


FARMEES^  BULLETIN  584. 


Table  9. — Percentages  of  increase  (or  decrease  where  indicated)  in  wages  of  male  farm  labor 

in  'periods  indicated. 


State  and  di\dsion. 

Month,  with 
board. 

Month,  with- 
out board. 

Day,  har- 
vest, with 
board. 

Day,  har- 
vest, 
without 
board. 

Day,  not 
harvest, 
with 
board. 

Day,  not 
harvest, 
without 
board. 

1909 

to 

1913 

1899 

to 

1913 

1893 

to 

1913 

1909 

to 

1913 

1899 

to 

1913 

1893 

to 

1913 

1909 

to 

1913 

1893 

to 

1913 

1909 

to 

1913 

1893 

to 

1913 

1909 

to 

1913 

1893 

to 

1913 

1909 

to 

1913 

1893 

to 

1913 

Maine 

14 

42 

40 

14 

36 

36 

5 

42 

5 

45 

6 

35 

9 

39 

New  Hampshire 

12 

34 

30 

2 

37 

34 

11 

32 

1 

31 

6 

36 

5 

37 

\ errnont 

1 

40 

44 

1 

35 

45 

11 

7 

14 

8 

8 

25 

31 

Massachusetts 

14 

39 

38 

1 

34 

35 

1 

23 

2 

22 

34 

29 

11 

33 

Rhode  Island 

2 

36 

31 

1 9 

29 

29 

2 

43 

3 

34 

12 

37 

8 

34 

Connecticut 

13 

36 

31 

6 

30 

22 

8 

15 

5 

11 

10 

26 

14 

31 

New  York 

3 

46 

35 

8 

46 

36 

2 

24 

11 

32 

12 

42 

14 

43 

New  Jersey 

3 

40 

44 

11 

40 

43 

4 

13 

8 

14 

13 

26 

14 

28 

Pennsylvania 

5 

44 

45 

9 

41 

40 

8 

29 

7 

30 

12 

44 

12 

45 

Delaware 

0 

44 

41 

0 

40 

33 

1 

25 

8 

26 

11 

32 

4 

29 

Maryland 

8 

50 

47 

11 

48 

45 

11 

13 

7 

16 

1 

42 

4 

37 

Virginia 

7 

54 

64 

11 

59 

63 

12 

32 

11 

29 

16 

76 

16 

63 

West  Virginia 

4 

56 

65 

9 

54 

60 

8 

34 

13 

44 

17 

68 

15 

66 

North  Carolina 

13 

86 

84 

14 

80 

78 

12 

41 

17 

47 

19 

80 

19 

83 

South  Carolina 

12 

83 

69 

14 

78 

63 

10 

49 

22 

59 

22 

66 

28 

75 

Georgia 

8 

78 

59 

10 

78 

61 

22 

45 

23 

53 

16 

67 

14 

73 

Florida 

0 

58 

53 

0 

53 

46 

6 

49 

14 

43 

14 

38 

7 

49 

Ohio 

6 

49 

47 

12 

45 

46 

8 

50 

10 

55 

13 

56 

16 

60 

Indiana 

4 

44 

42 

8 

38 

38 

8 

40 

12 

44 

11 

54 

15 

57 

Illinois 

3 

42 

40 

6 

37 

34 

5 

45 

10 

46 

4 

53 

11 

52 

Michigan 

2 

47 

42 

6 

45 

39 

11 

46 

11 

46 

12 

52 

12 

53 

Wisconsin 

2 

46 

51 

8 

44 

48 

6 

50 

8 

51 

8 

52 

14 

56 

Minnesota 

2 

45 

54 

5 

39 

47 

9 

56 

9 

51 

9 

64 

14 

70 

Iowa 

9 

59 

58 

11 

48 

48 

8 

69 

8 

60 

11 

70 

17 

65 

Missouri 

0 

48 

48 

6 

44 

43 

! 5 

43 

8 

47 

8 

59 

9 

56 

North  Dakota 

14 

42 

39 

18 

29 

28 

5 

56 

6 

59 

11 

64 

17 

71 

South  Dakota 

1 1 

47 

48 

6 

41 

47 

0 

51 

5 

54 

0 

52 

1 

56 

Nebraska 

12 

43 

50 

1 

40 

46 

11 

94 

4 

84 

11 

69 

6 

72 

Kansas 

15 

38 

48 

13 

34 

40 

11 

86 

2 

72 

1 6 

59 

1 

59 

Kentucky 

2 

42 

45 

7 

44 

44 

4 

22 

8 

25 

6 

48 

13 

49 

Tennessee 

6 

53 

56 

10 

57 

59 

6 

27 

10 

36 

10 

59 

12 

61 

Alabama 

9 

67 

58 

9 

62 

56 

12 

41 

12 

46 

22 

63 

20 

68 

Mississippi 

14 

47 

39 

11 

49 

45 

4 

50 

3 

55 

13 

64 

12 

69 

Louisiana 

0 

36 

22 

6 

39 

30 

9 

27 

10 

35 

8 

37 

10 

38 

Texas 

4 

48 

41 

9 

53 

45 

8 

40 

13 

47 

16 

50 

16 

49 

Oklahoma 

14 

38 

35 

1 

35 

36 

11 

70 

10 

70 

12 

55 

7 

58 

Arkansas 

4 

61 

47 

8 

62 

45 

12 

48 

12 

47 

11 

64 

12 

62 

Montana 

12 

16 

16 

1 

26 

20 

11 

37 

12 

42 

5 

36 

9 

43 

V/  yoming 

0 

17 

14 

12 

16 

14 

12 

24 

9 

32 

3 

35 

9 

42 

Colorado 

18 

25 

24 

13 

29 

26 

13 

42 

0 

34 

16 

36 

4 

40 

New  Mexico 

13 

34 

32 

5 

43 

31 

7 

36 

7 

31 

7 

33 

10 

38 

Arizona 

11 

24 

34 

0 

27 

25 

9 

22 

8 

21 

8 

43 

15 

46 

Utah 

16 

50 

56 

19 

48 

53 

12 

61 

0 

60 

9 

65 

4 

68 

Nevada 

1 2 

25 

30 

3 

25 

30 

0 

31 

15 

30 

16 

45 

49 

Idaho 

19 

28 

32 

13 

27 

32 

6 

49 

2 

58 

1 

51 

4 

51 

Washington 

16 

32 

38 

0 

32 

37 

3 

61 

12 

55 

1 

55 

12 

46 

Oregon  

16 

35 

41 

1 

42 

46 

2 

47 

14 

45 

4 

54 

11 

54 

California 

3 

37 

33 

7 

38 

32 

12 

17 

7 

19 

1 

37 

4 

37 

United  States 

6.8 

53.8 

54.4 

10.5 

51.8 

51.8 

9.8 

46.7 

13.5 

49.2 

12.6 

61.1 

16.3 

63.0 

North  Atlantic 

0.8 

41.3 

37.1 

4.8 

38.7 

35.2 

3.1 

22.8 

7.1 

26.2 

12.0 

.36.8 

11.8 

37.9 

South  Atlantic 

10.1 

71.5 

69.5 

12.4 

69.4 

66.7 

12.6 

39.8 

16.0 

45.0 

16.4 

70.0 

17.2 

70.3 

North  Central 

3.6 

47.2 

49.0 

7.1 

42.3 

44.4 

7.0 

56.2 

9.5 

56.1 

7.6 

59.6 

13.0 

61.9 

South  Central 

5.0 

52.2 

51.7 

9.2 

.54.2 

54.4 

10.0 

44.0 

12.7 

49.5 

13.4 

63.2 

15.7 

63.9 

Western 

12.7 

33.1 

36.9 

2.0 

35.2 

36.4 

0 

36.  5 

0.8 

36.0 

2.7 

49.0 

5.1 

48.9 

Decrease,  per  cent. 


THE  AGKICULTUKAL  OUTLOOK, 


19 


Table  10. — Average  length  of  time  required  of  hired  labor. 

(Estimates  based  upon  reports  of  crop  correspondents  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  (Agricultural  Forecasts).] 


Stale  and  division. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Fall. 

Winter. 

Average, 

four 

sea.sor.s. 

Relative  rank  of  States. 

Hours. 

Minutes. 

Hours. 

Minutes. 

Hours. 

Minutes. 

Hours. 

Minutes. 

Hours. 

Minutes. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Fall. 

i 

.a 

Average. 

Maine 

9 

50 

10 

20 

9 

35 

8 

40 

9 

39 

22 

38 

41 

14 

37 

New  Hampshire. . . . 

9 

55 

10 

9 

50 

9 

10 

9 

44 

16 

45 

19 

3 

23 

Vermont 

10 

15 

10 

40 

10 

5 

9 

15 

9 

45 

4 

24 

6 

2 

19 

9 

45 

10 

9 

40 

8 

55 

9 

35 

29 

45 

35 

5 

41 

9 

40 

10 

10 

10 

8 

50 

9 

40 

40 

44 

7 

8 

35 

Connecticut 

9 

50 

10 

30 

9 

40 

8 

55 

9 

44 

22 

30 

35 

5 

23 

New  York 

10 

5 

10 

30 

9 

50 

8 

35 

9 

45 

8 

30 

19 

21 

19 

10 

10 

9 

35 

8 

40 

9 

37 

10 

42 

41 

14 

39 

10 

10 

40 

9 

40 

8 

40 

9 

45 

10 

24 

35 

14 

19 

Delaware 

9 

50 

1 

10 

9 

25 

8 

30 

1 9 

[ 

44 

22 

8 

47 

25 

23 

9 

11 

45 

10 

8 

50 

10 

- 

16 

1 

- 

8 

4 

Virginia 

9 

45 

1 10 

55 

9 

50 

8 

35 

i 9 

46 

29 

17 

19 

21 

16 

West  Virginia 

9 

45 

10 

25 

9 

55 

8 

50 

! 9 

44 

29 

33 

14 

8 

23 

North  Carolina 

9 

45 

10 

55 

9 

50 

8 

40 

i 9 

47 

29 

17 

19 

14 

13 

South  Carolina 

9 

35 

11 

5 

9 

35 

8 

25 

9 

40 

44 

10 

41 

29 

35 

Georgia 

9 

45 

11 

10 

9 

45 

8 

35 

1 9 

49 

29 

8 

30 

21 

12 

Florida 

9 

45 

10 

35 

9 

50 

9 

20 

9 

52 

29 

27 

19 

1 

9 

Ohio 

9 

45 

10 

35 

9 

40 

8 

20 

1 9 

30 

29 

27 

35 

35 

45 

Indiana 

9 

40 

I 10 

50 

9 

40 

8 

5 

1 9 

34 

40 

21 

35 

46 

42 

Illinois 

10 

10 

i 

5 

9 

50 

8 

15 

! ^ 

50 

7 

10 

19 

39 

11 

Michigan 

9 

55 

10 

20 

9 

35 

8 

25 

i 9 

34 

16 

38 

41 

29 

42 

\\  isconsin 

10 

40 

11 

15 

10 

10 

. 9 

10 

16 

2 

4 

5 

4 

1 

Minnesota 

10 

30 

11 

20 

10 

25 

8 

45 

10 

15 

3 

3 

2 

12 

2 

Iowa 

10 

10 

45 

9 

50 

8 

15 

9 

42 

10 

23 

19 

39 

32 

Missouri 

10 

11 

15 

9 

55 

8 

25 

1 9 

54 

10 

4 

14 

29 

6 

North  Dakota 

10 

50 

11 

5 

11 

8 

5 

^ 10 

15 

1 

10 

1 

46 

2 

South  Dakota 

10 

15 

10 

55 

10 

15 

8 

30 

9 

59 

4 

17 

3 

25 

5 

Nebraska 

10 

5 

10 

50 

9 

55 

8 

15 

9 

46 

8 

21 

14 

39 

16 

Kansas 

9 

45 

10 

55 

10 

8 

25 

9 

46 

29 

17 

7 

29 

16 

Kentucky 

9 

40 

11 

15 

9 

50 

8 

15 

! 9 

45 

40 

4 

19 

39 

19 

Tennessee 

9 

40 

11 

5 

9 

45 

8 

15 

9 

41 

40 

10 

30 

39 

34 

Alabama 

9 

50 

11 

15 

9 

50 

8 

40 

9 

54 

22 

4 

19 

14 

6 

Mississippi 

9 

45 

11 

9 

45 

8 

40 

9 

47 

29 

14 

30 

14 

13 

Louisiana 

9 

30 

10 

40 

9 

50 

8 

50 

9 

44 

44 

24 

19 

8 

23 

Texas 

9 

50 

11 

10 

8 

45 

9 

54 

22 

14 

7 

12 

6 

Oklahoma 

10 

11 

25 

10 

15 

8 

30 

9 

47 

10 

2 

3 

25 

13 

Arkansas 

9 

50 

11 

10 

8 

35 

9 

51 

22 

14 

21 

10 

Montana 

10 

15 

10 

25 

9 

55 

8 

20 

9 

44 

4 

33 

14 

35 

23 

Wyoming 

10 

10 

20 

9 

35 

8 

10 

9 

31 

10 

38 

41 

44 

44 

Colorado 

9 

55 

10 

20 

9 

50 

8 

30 

9 

39 

16 

38 

19 

25 

37 

New  Mexico 

9 

45 

10 

30 

10 

8 

40 

9 

44 

29 

30 

- 

14 

23 

Arizona 

9 

30 

10 

15 

9 

40 

8 

20 

9 

26 

45 

42 

35 

35 

46 

Utah 

9 

9 

30 

9 

"7 

55 

8 

51 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

Nevada 

9 

30 

10 

9 

30 

8 

25 

9 

21 

45 

45 

46 

29 

47 

Idaho 

9 

55 

10 

25 

9 

45 

8 

10 

9 

44 

16 

33 

30 

44 

23 

Washington 

9 

50 

10 

25 

9 

55 

8 

20 

9 

37 

22 

33 

14 

35 

39 

Oregon 

9 

55 

10 

35 

10 

8 

25 

9 

44 

16 

27 

7 

29 

23 

California 

9 

45 

10 

25 

1 ^ 

45 

8 

55 

9 

42 

29 

33 

30 

5 

32 

United  States 

9 

54 

10 

54 

9 

52 

8 

33 

9 

48 

Di^dsions: 

N.  Atlantic 

10 

10 

30 

9 

43 

8 

43 

9 

43 

S.  Atlantic 

9 

43 

10 

58 

9 

49 

8 

40 

9 

47 

N.  Cent.  Eastern.. 

10 

2 

10 

50 

9 

53 

8 

25 

9 

44 

N.  Cent.  Western. 

10 

11 

1 

10 

4 

8 

24 

9 

54 

S.  Central 

9 

47 

11 

4 

9 

53 

8 

35 

9 

49 

Far  West 

9 

47 

10 

21 

9 

4-1 

8 

32 

9 

37 

1 

20 


FARMEES  BULLETIN  584. 


Table  11. 


-Prices  of  agricultural  products,  Mar.  1,  1914  and  1913. 

[Prices  of  vyheat,  corn,  oats,  and  barley  are  given  on  pages  12  to  1.5.  Butter,  chickens,  cotton,  cents  per 
pound;  eggs,  cents  per  dozen;  hay,  dollars  per  ton;  others,  cents  per  lju.shel.j 


State. 

Rye. 

Buck- 

wheat. 

Pota- 

toes. 

II  ay. 

1914'l913 

1 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

Cts.  i Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Dots. 

Dots. 

Me 

63 

80 

52 

45 

13.30 

14.  30 

N.  H 

93 

j 100 

71 

77 

72 

17.00 

16. 00 

Vt 

73 

87 

94 

76 

68 

13.  80 

' 12.  70 

Mass 

96 

85 

85 

70 

89 

71 

19.20 

20.  70 

R.  I 

90 

74 

20. 00 

22.  70 

Conn 

95 

87 

97 

76 

84 

84 

20. 90 

21.  60 

N.  Y 

72 

73 

80 

67 

78 

63 

15.40 

13.60 

N.  J 

72 

69 

80 

73 

88 

71 

18.20 

18.  90 

Pa 

73 

77 

70 

63 

81 

62 

14. 10 

14.80 

Del 

70 

74 

75 

75 

100 

78 

15.60 

14.50 

Md 

71 

72 

75 

65 

70 

58 

15. 10 

12.  80 

Va 

81 

82 

84 

81 

82 

75 

15.50 

14.50 

W.  Va 

86 

82 

80 

/3 

98 

68 

16.  40 

14.20 

N.  C 

97 

101 

80 

86 

85 

80 

17.70 

16.30 

S.C 

18C 

125 

130 

145 

18.30 

18.90 

Ga 

115 

140 

117 

100 

18.  70 

17. 10 

Fla.:. 

116 

122 

18. 30 

17. 30 

Ohio 

67 

66 

87 

73 

83 

58 

12. 30 

11.40 

Ind 

62 

64 

80 

84, 

54 

13.00 

10.  SO 

Ill 

61 

70 

ioo 

87 

62 

14.00 

12. 30 

Mich 

61 

59 

68 

62 

53 

38 

12.30 

11.00 

Wis 

54 

56 

74 

64 

55 

32 

10.00 

11.00 

Minn 

48 

50 

61 

60 

55 

28 

6.  80 

5.90 

Iowa 

62 

64 

85 

75 

93 

50 

9.  50 

8.  70 

Mo 

70 

81 

92 

97 

71 

14.  40 

9.  90 

N.  Dak 

45 

47 

61 

30 

6. 00 

5.30 

S.  Dak 

55 

54 

69 

43 

6.  40 

6.  30 

Nebr 

56 

53 

82 

84 

52 

8.  40 

8.00 

Kans 

69 

69 

98 

76 

12.  40 

7.  80 

Ky 

100 

87 

104 

67 

16.  90 

13.80 

Tenn 

97 

91 

75 

70 

109 

82 

17.80 

15. 10 

Ala 

140 

148 

124 

110 

15.  90 

14.20 

Miss 

115 

113 

13.  50 

13.70 

La 

115 

104 

13.60 

12.  70 

Tex 

102 

111 

123 

11.  80 

11.50 

Okla 

80 

85 

113 

99 

11.60 

7. 70 

Ark 

84 

91 

110 

107 

14.90 

12.  90 

Mont 

70 

67 

69 

45 

9.  70 

8.  40 

Wyo 

55 

63 

75 

62 

11.00 

7. 10 

Coio 

55 

52 

60 

43 

11.50 

8.  30 

N.  Mex 

115 

86 

14.50 

9.  40 

Ariz 

152 

105 

15.50 

11.00 

Utah 

06 

66 

43 

10.00 

8.  30 

Nev 

72 

53 

10.  70 

9. 50 

Idaho 

75 

52 

28 

8.  20 

7.  40 

Wash 

50 

58 

60 

31 

11.00 

10.  60 

Or  eg 

90 

70 

50 

35 

9.20 

8.30 

Cal 

95 

90 

54 

11.50 

14.80 

U.  S 

1 

61.9 

63.2 

75. 1 

67.0 

70.7 

52.0 

12.  37 

11.34 

Flax. 


1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

13.2 

12.0 

12.5 
12.7 

12.6 
17.0 

12.0 

12.0 

11.8 

12.5 

149 

136 

120 

130 

118 

110 

125 

125 

no 

121 

122 

11.6 

9.0 

135 

131 

121 

12.3 

12.5 
12.0 

11.6 
11.1 

11.0 

11.0 

11.5 
12.0 
12.2 

11.3 

11.6 

11.4 
12. 1 

127 

115 

12.0 

132.5 

119.0 

12.6 

11.8 

Cotton. 


Butter. 

Eggs. 

Chick- 

ens. 

! 1914 

^1913 

1 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts.__ 

Clsl 

32 

31 

31 

26 

15. 5 

14.2 

33 

34 

32 

26 

15.8 

14.0 

33 

34 

31 

25 

13.  9 

13.4 

36 

36 

35 

31 

16.5 

15.5 

35 

35 

38 

32 

17.0 

16.3 

34 

36 

36 

29 

17.6 

14.8 

32 

33 

32 

25 

15.1 

14.4 

34 

37 

33 

29 

17.3 

15.9 

32 

33 

28 

23 

14.0 

13.0 

34 

28 

28 

20 

14. 5 

13.0 

29 

28 

25 

21 

15.3 

14.0 

t 27 

25 

24 

18 

14.5 

12.6 

28 

26 

26 

20 

13.1 

12.2 

) 24 

24 

21 

17 

11.9 

10.4 

» 25 

26 

22 

20 

12.6 

11.1 

i 25 

26 

22 

19 

12.9 

12.6 

; 34 

32 

25 

24 

15.7 

14.4 

27 

28 

25 

20 

13.2 

11.7 

24 

25 

23 

18 

11.9 

11.0 

26 

27 

25 

19 

11.5 

11.0 

28 

28 

28 

22 

12.5 

11.3 

29 

32 

26 

20 

11.4 

11.0 

27 

30 

25 

19 

10.4 

9.6 

25 

28 

22 

17 

10.7 

10.0 

23 

23 

23 

17 

11.5 

10.4 

25 

25 

26 

22 

10.6 

9.1 

24 

25 

22 

18 

9.0 

8.9 

22 

23 

22 

17 

9.9 

9.4 

23 

24 

21 

16 

10.6 

9.2 

22 

21 

22 

16 

11.6 

10.5 

21 

20 

20 

16 

11.8 

10.3 

22 

22 

20 

17 

12.4 

11.7 

24 

23 

19 

18 

12.3 

11.5 

28 

28 

21 

19 

14.7 

12.5 

22 

23 

18 

17 

9.7 

9.3 

22 

22 

20 

17 

10.4 

9.1 

25 

24 

20 

17 

11.0 

9.5 

35 

35 

33 

33 

12.6 

13.4 

33 

31 

30 

31 

12.0 

12.5 

29 

30 

25 

23 

13.0 

13.1 

34 

33 

27 

26 

13.0 

13.9 

38 

41 

32 

32 

19.5 

22.0 

30 

29 

27 

23 

12.3 

12.7 

35 

40 

32 

37 

22.5 

19.5 

30 

32 

27 

28 

10.1 

11.0 

33 

34 

26 

25 

14.5 

12.5 

33 

32 

25 

23 

13.5 

12.2 

29 

35 

25 

20 

14.9 

13.6 

26.0 

27.5 

24.2 

19.4 

1 

12.1 

11.1 

THE  AGPvICULTUKAL  OUTLOOK.  21 

Table  12. — Averages  for  the  United  States  of  'prices  paid  to  producers  of  farm  products. 


February  15 — January  15— 


1911 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

Hogs 

per  100  lbs. . 

S7.  75 

$7.17 

$5.79 

$7.  04 

$7.87 

$7.  45 

$6.  77 

$5.  74 

$7.  44 

$7.76 

Beef  cattle 

.per  100  lbs.. 

6. 16 

5.  55 

4.61 

4.57 

4.64 

6.04 

5.  40 

4.  46 

4.58 

4.  71 

Veal  calves 

per  100  lbs.. 

7.90 

7.23 

6. 07 

6. 38 

6.28 

7.89 

7. 06 

6.06 

6.  50 

6.  41 

Sheep 

per  100  lbs. . 

4.  67 

4.63 

4.01 

4.  34 

5.09 

4.67 

4. 35 

3.89 

4.  47 

5.63 

Lambs 

per  100  lbs. . 

6.18 

6.34 

5. 15 

5.  44 

6.  62 

6. 16 

6.03 

5.  22 

5.  71 

5.82 

Milch  cows 

. .per  head. . 

59.00 

51.42 

43.40 

44.  48 

40.  35 

57. 99 

49.51 

42.  89 

44.  70 

41.18 

Horses 

..per  head.. 

139. 00 

146.  00 

137. 00 

144. 00 

147.  00 

137»00 

140. 00 

134.00 

143.00 

140.00 

Wool,  unwashed. 

per  lb. . 

.157 

.187 

.163 

.173 

.246 

.157 

.186 

.162 

.173 

.245 

Honey,  comb 

per  lb.. 

.137 

.139 

.140 

.133 

.136 

.136 

.1.39 

.138 

.136 

.135 

Apples 

..per  bush.. 

1.23 

.784 

.988 

1.19 

1.11 

1.11 

.743 

.927 

1.  16 

1.06 

Peanuts 

per  lb.. 

.047 

.045 

.047 

.050 

.054 

.047 

.046 

.043 

.044 

.049 

Beans,  dry 

..per  bush.. 

2.09 

2. 19 

2.38 

2.23 

2.  23 

2.17 

2.  26 

2.  38 

2.20 

2.23 

Soy  beans 

. .per  bush. . 

1.80 

1.96 

Sweet  potatoes. . . 

..per  bush.. 

.861 

.870 

.935 

.816 

.787 

.825 

.837 

.869 

.791 

.748 

Turnips 

. .per  bush. . 

.600 

.512 

.568 

.496 

Cabbages 

.per  100  lbs.. 

2.  07 

1.17 

2.  24 

1.48 

2.  05 

1.87 

1.26 

1.89 

1.  56 

1.87 

Onions 

..per  bush.. 

1.41 

. 775 

1.40 

1.04 

1.00 

1.21 

.816 

1.17 

1.01 

.944 

Clover  seed 

..per  bush.. 

8.  79 

10.  28 

12.22 

8.  37 

8.26 

8.  35 

9.  41 

10.89 

8. 27 

8.26 

Timothy  seed 

. .per  bush. . 

2.  45 

1.78 

7.  26 

4. 51 

2.  42 

1.79 

6.  99 

4. 12 

Alfalfa  seed 

. .per  bush. . 

6.  84 

8. 15 

6.  88 

7.  66 

Broom  corn 

per  ton. . 

95.00 

56.  00 

86.  00 

80.00 

197. 00 

94.00 

49.00 

100.00 

81.00 

190.00 

Pop  corn 

..per  bush  . 

1.  73 

1.54 

1.72 

1.47 

rnt.tnn  sftp.H 

. ner  t nn 

23.37 

22.  00 

16. 81 

25. 61 

22. 70 

21.98 

16. 57 

26. 35 

Prices  paid  by  farmers: 

Bran 

per  ton.. 

28. 91 

25.32 

28. 62 

25. 27 

27.00 

26.53 

25.  24 

27. 39 

24.92 

26.20 

Clover  seed 

per  bush. . 

9.59 

11.62 

9.  50 

11.39 

Timothy  seed 

per  bush 

2.  92 

2.  47 

2.  87 

2.  51 

Alfalfa  seed . . 

. .per  bush. . 

8. 19 

9.60 

8.  41 

8.  25 

Table  13. — Aggregate  value  per  acre  of  crop  production. 

[The  tabulation  below  gives  the  average  value  per  acre  of  12  leading  crops  (corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye, 
buckwheat,  potatoes,  hay,  flaxseed,  cotton,  rice,  and  tobacco)  which  represent  more  than  90  per  cent  of 
the  total  area  of  all  crops,  and  which  closely  approximate  the  value  per  acre  of  all  crops.  For  compari- 
son the  value  of  all  crops  which  had  acreage  reports  in  the  census  of  1909  are  also  given.] 


State  and  division. 

Value  per  acre  of  12  crops  combined. 

Census, 
all  crops, 
with 
acreage 
reports, 
1909. 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

1909 

Maine 

23.  72 

23.  43 

26. 24 

23.35 

20.91 

19.80 

New  Hampshire 

20.  44 

21.51 

21.77 

21.41 

19.53 

19.29 

Vermont 

20.  78 

22.  61 

20.47 

18.39 

17.  61 

18. 17 

Massachusetts 

32.34 

34.38 

31.59 

29. 94 

30. 89 

41.33 

Rhode  Island 

32. 25 

30. 62 

32. 81 

29. 04 

29.01 

40.50 

Connecticut 

37.63 

43.04 

40.69 

37. 77 

35.16 

35.84 

New  York 

19. 33 

20. 04 

20.80 

19.  51 

18.39 

20.80 

New  Jersev 

29.02 

28.70 

26.  67 

26.  59 

26.31 

33. 19 

Pennsylvania 

21.34 

22.41 

21.11 

20.60 

18.16 

18.90 

Delaware 

18.47 

19. 00 

19. 82 

18.17 

17.00 

19.36 

Maryland 

18.  85 

19.  55 

18. 97 

19. 52 

18. 66 

20. 54 

Virginia 

23.69 

19. 58 

18.31 

19. 18 

17.63 

20.31 

West  Virginia 

21.67 

21.57 

16.  79 

18. 51 

16.71 

17. 67 

North  Carolina 

24.84 

22. 35 

20. 82 

21.46 

18. 62 

22.28 

South  Carolina 

25. 18 

21.35 

22.55 

24.59 

22.48 

26.45 

Georgia 

20. 80 

16. 42 

19. 52 

19. 47 

19.32 

22.20 

Florida 

17.85 

14.41 

15.70 

15. 58 

15.06 

21.54 

Ohio 

19.  29 

17.  75 

19. 45 

16.89 

19.07 

18.83 

Indiana 

17.28 

14.97 

16.69 

14.88 

17.29 

17.07 

Illinois 

14.87 

15.37 

15.99 

14.30 

17.56 

17.88 

Michigan 

16.83 

16.42 

19.89 

16.39 

16.85 

17.32 

Wisconsin 

19.41 

17.63 

20.64 

15.10 

■16.54 

15.77 

Minnesota 

14.26 

11.80 

13.16 

12.96 

13.72 

12.61 

Iowa 

17.01 

14.30 

14.13 

12. 22 

14.40 

14.94 

Missouri 

12.  29 

13.98 

13.24 

13.84 

14.16 

14.25 

22 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  584, 


Table  13. — Aggregate  value  per  acre  of  crop  production — Continued. 


State  and  division. 

Value  per  acre  of  12  crops  combined. 

Censas, 
all  crops, 
with 
acreage 
reports, 
1909. 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

1909 

North  Dakota 

8.15 

11.49 

9.13 

4.  .55 

12.36 

11.35 

South  Dakota 

9.  48 

10.  21 

6.29 

10.12 

12. 05 

10. 17 

Nebraska 

10. 85 

9.  80 

10.59 

9.95 

12. 36 

11.19 

Kansas 

7.00 

10.60 

8. 94 

9. 95 

11.25 

10.63 

Kentucky 

1.912 

20.14 

18. 81 

20.  25 

20.68 

20.f  2 

Tennessee 

18. 01 

17.36 

17. 40 

17.61 

15.81 

17.C5 

Alabama 

20.  00 

17. 45 

17.32 

18.  56 

15.69 

18.87 

Mississippi 

19.  62 

17. 01 

15.39 

20.48 

17. 59 

22.  .59 

Louisiana 

19.  05 

17.  76 

15.  86 

16.08 

15.60 

20.36 

Texas 

18. 52 

19.50 

13. 97 

17. 87 

15.50 

15. 62 

Oklahoma 

10.06 

11.34 

7.93 

14.02 

11.80 

10.95 

1 Arkansas 

18. 56 

17. 93 

16.68 

19. 40 

16.  61 

20.34 

Montana 

16.  07 

16.24 

20.41 

18.78 

20. 45 

15.4) 

Wyoming 

15.37 

17.  74 

21.11 

25.  88 

16. 52 

12.45 

Colorado 

18. 88 

17.  41 

17. 02 

19. 96 

20. 50 

17.52 

New  Mexico 

22.  26 

19. 45 

28.78 

•22. 81 

19.05 

12.76 

Arizona 

38.  85 

38. 52 

39.  62 

29.  67 

29.  77 

25.97 

Utah 

21.66 

23.14 

22.37 

24.58 

23.  25 

23.15 

Nevada 

32. 30 

29.93 

34.93 

37.12 

26.30 

14. 73 

Idaho 

19.93 

19.04 

23.47 

21.86 

22.15 

19.5) 

Washington 

20.00 

18.78 

21.42 

19.  65 

21.11 

20.  f 3 

Oregon 

18.  67 

18.  66 

19.24 

21.88 

18.  59 

18.54 

California 

20.  25 

21.84 

21.86 

18.82 

19. 51 

20.39 

United  States 

16.31 

15. 96 

15.51 

15.52 

16. 02 

16. 30 

Divisions: 

1 

1 

North  Atlantic 

21.80 

22.75 

22.39 

21.24 

19.  61 

21.55 

South  Atlantic 

22.  54 

19.31 

19. 80 

20.47 

19. 10 

22.23 

North  Central,  East 

17.07 

16.22 

17. 95 

15.30 

17. 57 

17.53 

North  Central,  West 

11.52 

11.91 

11.08 

10.  67 

12. 96 

12.2  1 

South  Central 

17. 45 

17.31 

14.55 

17.79 

15.75 

17.0) 

Far  West 

19. 59 

19. 55 

21.43 

20.63 

20. 39 

18. 75 

FLORIDA  AND  CALIFORNIA  CROP  REPORT. 

Table  14  shows  the  crop  situation  in  Florida  and  California  on 
March  1,  1914,  with  comparisons,  based  upon  reports  received  from 
agents  and  correspondents  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  (Agricultural 
Forecasts): 

Table  14. 


Item. 

Florida. 

California. 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1914 

1913 

1912 

Orange  trees  (condition) 

94 

93 

92 

90 

68 

88 

Lemon  trees  (condition) 

85 

56 

86 

Lime  trees  (condition) 

97 

96 

100 

Grapefruit  trees  (condition) 

96 

92 

98 

Pineapple  plants  fcondition)  . 

90 

92 

82 

Tomatoes  fcondition).. 

85 

84 

72 

Cabbages  (condition) . 

88 

91 

71 

Cciery  (condition) 

94 

82 

85 

Cauliflower  (condition) 

94 

85 

88 

White  potatoes  1 fconrlitinn) 

88 

93 

85 

Spring  pasture  fcondition)  . 

87 

86 

76 

Spring  plowing  (per  cent  done) 

68 

75 

64 

Spring  planting  fper  cent  df)ne)  . 

52 

56 

51 

M ead  ows  ( con  d i t i on ) 

90 

93 

75 

1 The  acreage  planted  to  white  potatoes  is  about  10  per  cent  larger  than  last  year’s  acreage. 


O 

WASHINGTON  : GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


US. DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

EWERS’  BULLET! 


585 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  A.  D.  Melvin,  Chief, 
May  5,  1914. 


NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION  OF 
HENS’  EGGS. 

lij'  Harry  IjAMon, 

IScnior  Animal  II  unhand  man  in  Poult  nj  InvestUjatiom,  Animal  Ilushandnj 

Di  vision. 

STUDY  OF  AN  EGG. 

In  taking  up  the  problems  of  incubation,  a brief  study  of  an  egg 
will  help  us  to  understand  the  reasons  for  some  of  the  rules  for  han- 
dling eggs  during  incubation.  The  shell  of  an  egg  is  porous,  con- 
sisting of  an  outer  and  an  inner  layer,  under  which  are  tAvo  mem- 
branes, separated  at  the  large  end  of  the  egg,  Avhicli  form  an  air  cell. 
This  air  space,  AAdiich  is  about  as  large  as  a 10-cent  piece  in  a fresh 
egg,  increases  in  size  directly  in  proportion  to  the  eAUiporation  in  the 
egg.  lender  these  membranes  and  surrounding  the  yolk  is  the  Avhite, 
or  albumen,  Avhich  contains  78.4  per  cent  of  water,  20  per  cent  of 
protein,  and  l.G  per  cent  of  mineral  matter.  Two  coiled  mem- 
branous layers  of  dense  albumen,  called  chalaza',  connect  the  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  yolk  with  each  end  of  the  shell  and  tend  to  lessen  its 
movement  and  regulate  its  position  in  the  egg.  The  germ  spot,  or 
blastoderm,  a seniiopaipie  spot  from  one-eighth  to  one-sixteenth  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  is  located  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  yolk  and 
always  remains  uppermost  in  the  egg. 

CARE  OF  EGGS  FOR  HATCHING. 

Strong,  fertile  eggs  are  the  prime  essential  in  good  hatching;  these 
are  obtained  only  from  stock  properly  mated  and  kept  under  the 
best  possible  conditions  to  secure  health  and  vigor.  Eggs  from  over- 
fat breeding  stock  do  not  usually  produce  a large  percentage  of 
strong  chicks.  If  breeders  are  confined,  they  should  be  fed  a varied 
supply  of  grains,  meat,  and  green  feed.  The  green  feed  assists  in 
keeping  fowls  in  good  breeding  condition.  Free  range  is  usually  an 

Note — Describes  incubation,  natural  and  artificial.  Of  interest  to  poultry  raisers 
everywhere. 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  585. 


important  factor  in  the  production  of  liatchable  eggs,  as  it  is  much 
easiei:  to  keep  up  the  vitality  of  stock  handled  in  this  manner  than 
in  birds  that  are  yarded.  From  8 to  12  females  of  the  American  or 
general-puriDOse  class  and  12  to  15  of  the  Mediterranean  class  can  be 
mated  with  one  male,  depending  on  his  age  and  vitality  and  where 
the  fowls  are  yarded,  but  this  proportion  may  be  increased  Avhere 
the  birds  have  free  range.  Abundant  ventilation  in  the  house  is 
also  a great  help  in  keeping  the  stock  in  good  breeding  condition. 

Abnormal,  small,  and  poorly  shaped  eggs  should  be  discarded.  Do 
not  set  eggs  which  have  thin  or  very  porous  appearing  shells.  Eggs 
should  be  set  when  fresh,  if  possible,  and  it  is  not  advisable  to  use 
eggs  for  hatching  which  are  over  two  weeks  old,  although  stale  eggs 
will  frequently  hatch.  Selecting  uniformly  large  eggs  for  hatching, 
Avhich  are  of  the  same  color,  is  one  of  the  quickest  ways  to  secure 
uniformity  in  the  offspring  and  increase  the  size  of  the  eggs.  Dirty 
eggs  should  be  cleaned  by  rubbing  lightly  with  a damp  cloth,  but  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  rub  off  any  more  of  the  natural  bloom  of  the 
egg  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  Duck  eggs  usually  require  Avashing, 
Avhich  does  not  appear  to  injure  their  hatching  qualities.  Eggs  for 
hatching  should  be  collected  tAvo  or  three  times  a day  in  freezing 
Aveather  to  prevent  chilling.  Broody  hens  alloAved  to  sit  on  eggs  in* 
the  laying  nests  all  day  may  hurt  the  hatching  qualities  of  the  eggs. 
Eggs  in  large  numbers  are  generally  kept  in  a cabinet  or  turning 
rack,  for  conA^enience  in  handling,  in  a room  Avhere  the  temperature 
is  betAveen  50°  and  00°  F.,  if  possible,  although  they  Avill  stand  con- 
siderable variation.  It  is  not  necessary  to  turn  eggs  kept  only  for  a 
feAv  days,  but  it  is  advisable  to  turn  eggs  daily  Avhich  are  over  a week 
old.  Various  commercial  turning  devices  are  sold  by  poultry  supply 
companies,  or  the  eggs  may  be  kept  in  cabinet  draAvers  and  shuffled 
about  Avith  the  hands  by  remoAung  a few  eggs  from  the  trays.  Com- 
mercial egg  cases  are  sometimes  used  for  holding  the  eggs  for 
hatching. 

Eggs  from  different  varieties  of  the  same  class  of  poultry  may  be 
incubated  together,  but  it  is  not  advisable  to  mix  eggs  from  the 
Mediterranean  or  egg  breeds,  such  as  Leghorns  and  Minorcas,  Avith 
Plymouth  Pocks  or  Orpingtons,  as  the  eggs  from  the  smaller  breeds 
often  hatch  a little  earlier  than  those  from  the  larger  breeds.  Neither 
the  hen  nor  the  incubator  Avill  hatch  strong  chickens  from  Aveak  germs 
or  from  eggs  Avhich  have  not  receiA^ed  proper  care. 

METHODS  OF  PACKING  HATCHING  EGGS. 

Eggs  for  hatching  are  shipped  extensively  OA^er  long  distances  suc- 
cessfully, but  in  many  cases  the  shipment  appears  to  affect  the  hatch. 
Setting  eggs  for  shipment  are  packed  in  seA^eral  different  Avays.  One 
of  the  best  methods  is  to  use  a common  market  basket  Avell  lined  on 


INCUBATION  OF  HENS^  EGGS. 


3 


the  bottom  and  sides  with  excelsior.  After  wrapping  the  eggs  in  a 
thin  layer  of  paper  and  enough  excelsior  to  make  a ball  of  about 
3 inches  in  diameter,  pack  them  tightly  in  the  basket,  then  put  on  a 
covering  of  excelsior,  and  over  all  sew  a piece  of  strong  cotton  cloth, 
or  the  cloth  can  be  pushed  up  under  the  outside  rim  of  the  basket  with 
a case  knife.  The  latter  method  of  fastening  the  cloth  is  much 
quicker  than  the  former  and  just  as  effective.  Eggs  are  also  shipped 
safely  almost  any  distance  by  packing  them  in  a stiff  pasteboard 
carton  or  box  made  for  this  purpose,  the  si)ace  around  the  egg  being 
filled  with  either  chaff  or  bran.  This  package  Ts  then  placed  in  a 
basket,  the  bottom  and  sides  of  which  are  lined  with  excelsior,  and 
the  spaces  at  either  end  of  the  box  are  packed  with  the  same  material. 
On  top  of  this  package  is  placed  more  excelsior  and  all  is  covered 
with  cloth,  as  previously  mentioned.  Extra  stiff  cardboard  cartons 
made  to  hold  from  one  to  several  settings  are  used  in  wdiich  to  ship 
eggs.  These  cartons  or  egg  boxes  are  fitted  with  a handle  for  carry- 
ing, similar  to  that  on  a market  basket.  Bushel  baskets  are  common!}^ 
used  to  ship  orders  of  from  10  to  12  sittings  of  eggs,  the  manner  of 
packing  and  covering  being  the  same  as  mentioned  in  the  first  method. 
It  is  customary  to  rest  eggs  for  hatching  for  about  12  hours  after 
they  are  received  to  allow  the  germ  to  regain  its  normal  position  be- 
fore the  eggs  are  placed  in  the  incubator. 

PERIOD  OF  INCUBATION. 

The  period  of  incubation  varies  with  different  .species  of  poultry, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  table : 


Period  of  incubation. 


Kind  of  poultry. 

Days. 

Kind  of  poultry. 

Days. 

Hen 

21 

Peafowl 

28 

Pheasant 

22-24 

Guinea 

26-28 

Duck 

28 

Ostrich . 

42 

Duck  (Muscovy) 

33-35 

Goose 

30-34 

Turkey 

28 

The  period  of  incubation  varies  somewhat  with  conditions,  so  that 
a hatch  may  run  one  or  two  days  over  in  some  cases,  due  to  an  acci- 
dent during  incubation  or  to  a low  temperature  throughout  that 
period,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  come  off  earlier.  If  through 
any  accident  the  eggs  are  chilled  or  overheated,  it  is  advisable  to 
continue  the  hatch,  testing  the  eggs  after  a few  days  to  determine  the 
extent  of  the  damage.  Chickens  have  been  hatched  from  eggs  left 
out  of  the  incubator  all  night,  as  well  as  from  eggs  which  have  been 
subjected  to  a temperature  of  over  110°  F.  for  a short  time. 


4 FARMERS^  BULLETIN  585. 

TIME  OF  THE  YEAR  TO  HATCH  CHICKENS. 

February,  March,  and  April  are  the  best  months  to  hatch  chickens, 
depending  somewhat  upon  the  individual,  as  well  as  the  climatic 
conditions.  Chickens  are  hard  to  raise  either  in  cold,  wet,  or  hot 
weather,  and  should  not  be  hatched  later  than  May  15  in  the  latitude 
of  Washington  if  the  pullets  are  desired  for  fall  egg  production, 
while  an  earlier  date  should  complete  the  time  of  hatching  farther 
south.  The  smaller  breeds  can  be  hatched  later  than  those  which 
are  larger  and  slower  to  develop,  as  they  mature  about  a month  earlier. 

NATURAL  INCUBATION. 

System  and  care  in  the  management  of  sitting  hens  will  produce 
a large  number  of  chickens  at  a comparatively  small  expense.  Even 
with  the  best  of  care,  some  hens  prove  to  be  fickle  mothers  and  cause 
trouble  and  loss  in  hatching  by  breaking  their  eggs,  leaving  their 
nests,  or  trampling  on  the  chickens  when  first  hatched.  Most  hens 
of  the  general-purpose  breeds,  such  as  the  Plymouth  Kochs,  Wyan- 
dottes,  Khode  Island  Keds,  and  Orpingtons,  make  very  good  mothers. 
The  heavier  class,  or  meat  breeds,  including  the  Brahmas  and  Cochins, 
make  good  sitters,  but  are  inclined  to  be  clumsy  on  the  nest.  The 
Leghorns  and  other  Mediterranean  breeds  are  very  nervous,  and 
usually  do  not  make  good  mothers. 

Where  only  a few  hens  are  set,  special  quarters  are  not  necessary 
(see  fig.  1),  but  Avhere  many  are  used  a separate  room  should  be  pro- 
vided for  the  sitters.  Portable  nests  are  frequently  furnished  for  the 
laying  hens,  so  that  broody  hens  can  be  moved  in  them  to  new  quar- 
ters. Of  the  various  styles  of  nests  used  for  sitting  hens,  the  following 
has  given  good  satisfaction:  15  inches  square,  15  inches  high,  with  a 
board  6 inches  high  in  front  to  prevent  nesting  material  from  falling 
out.  The  nests  may  be  arranged  in  tiers,  with  a hinged  front,  which 
makes  a platform  for  each  tier  when  open.  A large  number  of  hens 
may  be  set  in  this  way  in  a moderate-sized  room.  When  using  a bank 
of  nests,  such  as  that  which  has  just  been  described,  it  would  be  well 
to  place  3 or  4 inches  of  damp  earth  in  the  bottom  of  each  nest.  The 
nesting  material  is  next  put  in,  and  may  consist  of  hay,  chaff,  or 
straw.  Pack  this  material  down  firmly,  and  shape  a circular  nest 
out  of  it,  which  should  be  slightly  deeper  in  the  center  than  at  the 
edges,  as  a nest  so  shaped  will  prevent  the  eggs  from  rolling  out  from 
under  the  hen  and  becoming  chilled. 

HOW  TO  SET  A HEN. 

As  the  time  approaches  for  the  hen  to  become  broody  or  sit,  if 
care  is  taken  to  look  into  the  nest,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  a 


INCUBATION  OF  llENS^  ECUiS. 


5 


feAv  soft,  downy  feathers  being  left  there  by  the  hen;  also  the  hen 
stays  longer  on  the  nest  Avlien  laying  at  this  time,  and  on  being 
approached  will  quite  likel}"  remain  on  the  nest,  making  a clucking 
noise,  milling  her  feathers,  and  pecking  at  the  intruder.  When  it 
is  noted  that  a hen  sits  on  the  nest  from  two  to  three  nights  in  suc- 
cession, and  that  most  of  the  feathers  are  gone  from  h^-  breast, 
which  should  feel  hot  to  the  hand,  she  is  ready  to  be  transferred  to  a 
nest  which  has  been  prepared  for  her  beforehand.  The  normal  tem- 
perature of  a hen  is  from  100°  to  107°  F.,  which  varies  slightly 
during  incubation.  Dust  the  hen  thoroughly  with  insect  poAvder, 
and  in  applying  the  poAvder  hold  the  hen  by  the  feet,  the  head  doAvn, 
Avorking  the  poAvder  Avell  into  the  feathers,  giving  special  attention 
to  regions  around  the  A^ent  and  under  the  wings.  The  powder  should 


Fig.  1. — Outside  nests  for  sitting  hens.  The  hens  are  fastened  to  stakes  by  strings  tied 

around  their  legs. 


also  be  sprinkled  in  the  nest.  The  nest  should  be  in  some  quiet,  out- 
of-the-Avay  place,  where  the  sitting  hen  Avill  not  be  disturbed.  Move 
her  from  the  regular  laying  nest  at  night  and  handle  her  carefully 
in  doing  so.  Put  a china  egg  or  tAvo  in  the  nest  where  she  is  to  sit, 
and  place  a board  over  the  opening  so  that  she  can  not  get  off. 
ToAvard  the  evening  of  the  second  day  quietly  go  in  Avhere  she  is 
sitting,  leaA^e  some  feed  and  Avater,  remoA^e  the  board  from  the  front 
or  top  of  the  nest,  and  let  the  hen  come  off  Avhen  she  is  ready.  Should 
she  return  to  the  nest  after  feeding,  remove  the  china  egg  or  eggs 
and  put  under  those  that  are  to  be  incubated.  If  the  nests  are 
slightly  darkened  the  hens  are  less  likely  to  become  restless.  At 
hatching  time  they  should  be  confined  and  not  be  disturbed  until  the 
hatch  is  completed,  unless  they  become  restless,  Avhen  it  may  be  best 


6 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  oSo. 


to  remove  the  chicks  that  are  hatched  first.  In  cool  weather  it  is 
best  not  to  put  more  than  10  eggs  under  a hen,  while  later  in  the 
spring  one  can  put  12  to  15,  according  to  the  size  of  the  hen. 

CARE  OF  THE  SITTING  HEN. 

If  several  hens  are  sitting  in  the  same  room,  see  that  they  are  kept 
on  the  nests,  only  allowing  them  to  come  off  once  a day  to  receive 
feed  and  water,  the  feed  to  consist  of  corn,  wheat,  or  both.  If  there 
are  any  that  do  not  desire  to  come  off  themselves,  they  should  be 
taken  off.  Hens  usually  return  to  their  nests  before  there  is  any 
danger  of  the  eggs  chilling,  but  if  they  do  not  go  back  in  half  an 
hour  in  ordinary  weather,  they  should  be  put  on  the  nest.  Where  a 
large  number  of  sitters  are  kept  in  one  room  it  is  advisable  to  let  them 
off  in  groups  of  from  4 to  6 at  a time.  The  eggs  and  nests  should 
be  examined  and  cleaned,  removing  all  broken  eggs  and  washing 
those  that  are  soiled ; in  the  latter  case  the  soiled  nesting  material 
should  be  removed  and  clean  straw  added.  Nests  containing  broken 
eggs  that  the  hen  is  allowed  to  sit  on  soon  become  infested  with 
mites  and  lice,  which  cause  the  hens  to  become  uneasy  and  leave 
the  nest,  often  causing  the  loss  of  valuable  sittings  of  eggs.  In 
mite-infested  nests,  the  hen,  if  fastened  in,  will  often  be  found  stand- 
ing over  rather  than  sitting  on  the  eggs.  Many  eggs  that  are  laid 
in  the  late  winter  and  early  spring  are  infertile.  For  this  reason 
it  is  advisable  to  set  several  hens  at  the  same  time.  After  the  eggs 
have  been  under  the  hens  from  5 to  7 days,  the  time  depending  some- 
what on  the  color  and  thickness  of  the  shells — white-shelled  eggs 
being  easier  to  test  than  those  having  brown  shells — they, should 
be  tested,^  the  infertile  eggs  and  dead  germs  removed,  and  the  fertile 
eggs  put  back  under  the  hen.  In  this  way  it  is  often  possible  to 
put  all  the  eggs  that  several  hens  originally  started  to  sit  on  under 
fewer  hens  and  reset  the  others.  For  example,  30  eggs  are  set  under 
3 hens  at  the  same  time,  10  under  each.  At  the  end  of  7 days  we  find 
on  testing  the  eggs  from  all  the  hens  that  10  are  infertile,  which 
leaves  us  20  eggs  to  reset,  which  we  do  by  putting  them  under  2 
hens,  and  have  the  remaining  hen  sit  over  again  after  she  has  sat 
only  7 days.  In  this  way  considerable  time  can  be  saved  in  one’s 
hatching  operations. 

TYPES  OF  INCUBATORS. 

There  are  many  different  types  of  incubators  on  the  market,  all  of 
which  are  of  one  of  the  following  types:  Hot  air,  hot  water,  or 
mammoth  machines.  Both  “ moisture  ” and  “ nonmoisture  ” incu- 
bators are  made  in  the  different  styles  of  hot-air  and  hot-water  ma- 

1 See  p.  14  for  directions  for  making  tests. 


INCUBATION  OF  HENS^  EGOS. 


1 


chines.  The  small  machines  are  heated  either  by  burning  kerosene 
oil  or  gas,  Avhile  the  heat  for  most  of  the  mammoth  machines  is  sup- 
plied by  a coal  stove,  although  gas  is  also  used  to  some  extent.  Gas 
burners  require  much  less  attention  than  oil  heaters,  but  a supply  of 
gas  is  not  available  in  many  localities  Avhere  oil  may  be  purchased. 
Electricity  is  also  used  for  heating,  both  in  small  incubators  and  in 
mammoth  machines. 

HOT-AIR  AND  HOT-WATER  MACHINES. 

Hot-air  and  hot-water  incubators  are  used  successfully  throughout 
the  countiy.  The  water  in  the  tanks  of  the  hot-water  machines 
should  be  emptied  after  the  last  hatch,  which  also  prevents  freezing 
when  stored  in  a cold  climate.  The  hot- water  incubator  will  hold 
its  heat  longer  than  the  hot-air  machine,  in  case  the  lamp  should  go 
out ; but  the  possibility  of  such  an  accident  is  too  slight  to  be  worth 
considering  Avhere  the  incubator  receives  proper  attention. 

MAMMOTH  INCUBATORS. 

The  mammoth  machines  are  used  extensively  both  in  the  day-old 
chick  business  and  in  custom  hatching.  Their  capacity  runs  from 
1,500  to  10,000  or  more  eggs,  as  the  machines  are  built  in  sections  of 
about  2,000  eggs  each,  the  size  varying  in  different  makes.  When 
an  incubating  capacity  of  less  than  3,000  to  4,000  eggs  is  desired, 
individual  incubators  of  50  to  400  egg  capacity  are  generally  used. 

THERMOSTAT. 

The  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  incubator  which  controls  the  reg- 
ulation of  the  heat  is  called  the  thermostat.  Thermostats  depend  on 
the  principle  of  expansion  and  contraction  caused  by  changes  in  tem- 
perature. They  are  fastened  in  the  egg  chamber  and  connected  by  a 
free  rod  to  a bar,  on  the  end  of  which  hangs  the  damper.  Some 
thermostats  regulate  the  size  of  the  flame  as  Avell  as  the  position  of 
the  damper.  Regulation  of  the  temperature  of  the  incubator  de- 
pends directly  on  the  efficiency  of  this  instrument,  so  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  one  of  a reliable  make.  Bar  thermostats  are  made  of  a 
combination  of  metals,  such  as  steel,  zinc,  and  aluminum.  The  wafer 
or  disk  thermostats,  which  contain  some  fluid  used  for  expanding 
and  contracting  the  disk,  are  also  used,  their  efficiency  depending 
entirely  upon  the  material  used  in  their  construction. 

THE  THERMOMETER. 

There  are  two  styles  of  incubator  thermometers,  with  various 
modifications;  one  is  placed  on  the  egg  tray,  while  the  other  is  hung 
directly  above  the  eggs.  The  thermometer  should  be  used  according 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  585. 


to  the  manufacturer’s  rules,  unless  there  is  a very  ^ood  reason  for 
making  a change.  Where  the  thermometer  is  ])laced  on  the  tray,  or 
is  laid  on  the  eggs,  some  operators  prefer  to  have  the  bulb  come  in 
contact  with  two  eggs,  so  that  it  may  record  the  temperature  of  at 
least  one  fertile  egg.  It  is  advisable  to  test  the  thermometers  once 
a year  with  a clinical  thermometer,  Avhich  may  be  secured  from  a 
physician  or  at  a drug  store.  This  can  be  done  by  putting  both 
thermometers  in  warm  water,  heated  at  about  103°  Ik,  which  should 
be  kept  stirred,  taking  care  to  keep  the  bulbs  near  each  other  and  at 
the  same  leA^el  in  the  water;  if  correct,  the  incubator  thermometer 
will  register  the  same  as  the  clinical  thermometer.  The  position  of 
the  thermometer  in  the  egg  chamber  affects  the  proper  temperature 
at  Avhich  to  operate  the  machine,  as  a difference  of  an  inch  in  height 
in  some  egg  chambers  will*  mean  at  least  a degree  of  difference  in 
temperature.  The  thermometer  is  usually  placed  in  the  front  of  the 
egg  tray,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  read. 

SELECTION  OF  AN  INCUBATOR. 

There  are  a large  number  of  reliable  makes  of  incubators  manu- 
factured in  this  country,  so  that  we  can  not  recommend  any  particu- 
lar machine.  Some- machines  have  become  popular  in  certain  sections 
of  the  country,  because  they  Avere  advertised  exteiisively  in  that  sec- 
tion rather  than  on  account  of  special  adaptability  to  the  climatic 
conditions.  Cheap  machines  are  less  reliable,  require  more  attention, 
and  Avear  out  much  quicker  than  higher-priced  incubators.  As  the 
value  of  the  machines  is  small  compared  Avith  the  value  of  the  eggs 
used  during  the  normal  life  of  an  incubator,  it  is  poor  economy  to 
purchase  a machine  Avhich  is  not  reliable.  Whenever  possible  it  is 
Avell  to  select  an  incubator  Avhich  is  giving  good  satisfaction  in  your 
vicinity,  so  that  you  may  get  the  benefit  of  the  experience  of  other 
operators  in  your  section. 

The  details  of  construction  and  equipment  of  most  incubators  are  so 
subject  to  change  that  it  is  impossible  to  state  definitely  the  best  kind 
of  lamps,  brackets,  regulators,  and  other  equipment  for  the  different 
incubators.  The  lamp  should  have  a -boAvl  large  enough  to  hold  suffi- 
cient oil  to  burn  at  least  36  hours  under  average  Aveather  conditions; 
it  should  be  easy  to  remove  and  replace,  and  set  absolutely  tight 
in  position.  The  incubator  should  be  set  so  that  the  lamp  is  at  a 
convenient  height  and  the  egg  tray  convenient  to  handle. 

NUMBER  OF  INCUBATORS. 

The  best  size  of  an  incubator  to  buy  depends  upon  circumstances. 
It  takes  about  as  much  time  to  care  for  a 60  as  it  does  for  a 360  egg 
machine,  so  that  it  is  generally  advisable  to  get  one  of  at  least  150- 


INCUBATION  OF  HENs'  EGGS. 


9 


egg  capacity,  although  special  conditions  often  exist  which  make 
smaller  machines  valuable.  A small  machine  is  often  used  in  con- 
nection with  a larger  one,  placing  all  the  eggs  in  the  large  machine 
after  the  first  or  second  test.  Incubators  of  from  300  to  400  egg 
capacity  are  generally  used  on  those  large  farms  which  use  individual 
lamp  incubators.  Many  poultrymen  believe  that  it  pays  to  have  an 
incubator  capacity  large  enough  to  hatch  the  bulk  of  their  stock  in 
two  or  three  batches,  so  that  much  time  is  saved  in  tending  to  the  in- 
cubators and  brooders,  while  the  chickens  are  more  even  in  size  than 
those  that  are  hatched  when  the  incubating  period  extends  over  a 
longer  time.  A fair  estimate  for  a poultry  farm  is  an  incubator  space 
of  one-egg  capacity  per  hen,  provided  that  about  one-half  of  the  dock 
is  to  be  reneAved  yearly  and  no  outside  hatching  is  carried  on.  The 
larger  machines  cost  less  in  proportion  to  their  capacity  than  the 
smaller  ones.  ; . : 

INCUBATOR  CELLAR  OR  HOUSE. 

Incubators  are  operated  in  a great  variety  of  places  with  success. 
AVhere  only  a feAv  small  machines  are  used  they  are  generally  run  in 
a room  or  the  cellar.^of  the  house.  A special  cellar  or  incubator  house 
should  be  provided  where  the  incubator  equipment  is  extensive  or 
where  mammoth  machines  are  used.  The  main  essentials  are  to  have 
a room  which  is  not  subject  to  great  variations  in  temperature  and 
which  is  AA^ell  ventilated  so  That  the  air  is  fresh  and  sAA^eet.  If  built 
above  ground  the  Avails  should  be  double  and  the  entire  building  Avell 
insulated.  Good  results  in  hatching  are  secured  in  incubator  cellars 
and  in  incubator  rooms  Avhich  are  entirely  above  the  ground  level,  but 
the  former  place  is  more  commonly  used.  Incubators  may  be  op- 
erated in  buildings  with  single  Avails,  especially  in  sections  which 
have  a mild  climate,  but  a Avell-insulated  room  is  preferable. 

The  incubator  room  or  cellar  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  the 
attendant  to  Avork  around  the  machines  conA^eniently.  Many  incu- 
bator cellars  are  provided  Avith  some  system  of  ventilation  in  addi- 
tion to  the  windoAvs,  Avhile  in  others  the  A^entilation  is  controlled 
entirely  by  the  latter  method.  The  essential  features  are  to  keep  the 
air  in  the  room  fresh  and  sAveet.  Muslin  screens  on  the  AvindoAvs  pro- 
vide good  ventilation  Avithout  draft  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the 
sun  from  shining  on  the  machines.  Many  incubator  cellars  have 
cement  floors,  Avhich  are  easier  to  keep  clean  and  neat  than  dirt  floors. 
(See  fig.  2.) 

SETTING  UP  AND  OPERATING  THE  INCUBATOR. 

Set  up  the  incubator  according  to  the  manufacturer’s  directions, 
and  see  that  the  machine  is  perfectly  level.  If  a spirit  level  is  not 
available,  a long  shallow  pan  of  Avater  set  on  top  of  the  incubator 


10 


FARMEKS^  BULLETIN  585. 


can  be  used  as  a level  to  assist  in  setting  up  the  machine.  Be  sure 
that  all  parts  of  the  incubator  are  in  their  proper  positions  and  that 
the  regulator  works  freely.  Do  not  plane  off  the  door  of  the  incu- 
bator, if  it  sticks,  until  the  machine  has  been  heated  up  and  thor- 
oughly dried.  Run  the  machine  at  about  102°  F.  for  a day  before 
putting  in  the  eggs.  It  takes  several  hours  for  the  machine  to  come 
back  to  its  correct  temperature  after  the  eggs  are  first  put  in ; there- 
fore the  regulator  should  not  be  touched  during  that  time.  See  to  the 
regulation  of  the  temperature  of  the  incubator  before  opening  the 
door  of  the  machine  to  attend  to  the  eggs.  Look  to  the  care  of 
the  incubator  carefully  and  regularly,  but  do  not  change  the  regu- 
lator any  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  Tlie  eggs  tend  to  throw 


Fig.  2. — Incubator  cellar  at  experimental  farm  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  at 
Bcltsville,  Md.,  showing  arrangement  of  incubators,  man  testing  eggs,  and  thermo- 
graph for  reading  temperature  of  room. 


off  more  heat  as  the  embryo  develops,  so  that  it  may  be  necessary 
occasionally  to  change  the  regulator  slightly.  The  temperature  of 
the  egg  chamber  may  be  regulated  by  lowering  the  flame  of  the 
lamp  in  the  middle  of  the  day  where  the  room  is  subject  to  a con- 
siderable rise  in  temperature.  The  machine  should  receive  care 
enough  so  that  the  temperature  remains  nearly  even.  Most  operators 
tend  to  their  incubators  two  or  three  times  daily,  and  occasionally 
make  extra  trips  as  conditions  require  them.  Incubators  require  care- 
ful and  regular  attention,  which,  though  simple,  is  very  exacting. 
If  attended  to  regularly  incubators  do  not  take  much  time,  while 
neglect  will  generally  show  its  effects  on  the  hatch. 


TNCUBATTON  OF  HENS^  EGOS. 


n 


THE  CORRECT  TEMPERATURE. 

The  correct  temperature  depends  upon  the  position  of  the  ther- 
mometer in  the  egg  chamber.  The  manufacturer’s  directions  should 
be  followed  and  changed  only  after  considerable  experience  indicates 
that  they  can  be  improved.  The  need  of  this  change  may  be  due  to 
the  fact  that  a manufacurer  can  not  make  a machine  and  rules  which 
will  be  adapted  to  all  conditions.  When  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer 
rests  directly  on  the  eggs  the  temperature  is  usually  held  at  101^° 
to  102°  F.  the  first  week,  102°  to  103°  F.  the  second  week,  and  103°  F. 
the  third  week ; while  a hanging  thermometer  is  operated  at  about  102° 
to  102 J°  F.  the  first  tAvo  Aveeks  and  103°  F.  the  last  week.  xVt  hatching 
time  the  machine  Avill  frequently  run  up  to  10d°  or  105°  F.  Avithout 
any  injury  to  the  chickens.  If  the  temperature  has  been  right  up  to 
hatching  time,  it  is  usually  better  not  to  change  the  regulator  at  that 
time,  provided  the  temperature  does  not  run  up  above  105°  F.  While 
the  eggs  Avill  hatch  just  as  Avell  if  the  temperature  is  run  slightly 
higher  than  noted  above  throughout  the  hatch,  the  chickens  are  apt 
to  be  Aveak  and  hard  to  raise.  In  a good  hatch  the  eggs  Avill  start 
to  pip  on  the  evening  of  the  nineteenth  day,  and  most  of  the  chickens 
Avill  be  out  of  the  shell  on  the  morning  of  the  tAventy-first  day.  If 
the  hatch  is  much  earlier  or  later  than  this  it  indicates  that  the  con- 
ditions during  incubation  have  not  been  right.  A high  tempera- 
ture may  hatch  eggs  too  quickly  and  produce  Aveak  chickens,  Avhile 
a continuous  Ioav  temperature  throughout  the  hatch  will  delay  it 
for  several  hours. 


CARE  OF  THE  LAMP. 

Use  good  oil.  Clean  and  fill  the  lamp  once  daily,  trimming  the 
Avick  by  scraping  the  charred  portion  off  Avith  a knife  or  square- 
edged  nail,  or  by  cutting  the  Avick  Avith  scissors.  The  burners  should 
be  kept  free  from  dirt  and  thoroughly  cleaned  by  boiling  after  each 
hatch.  A ncAv  Avick  is  a good  investment  for  each  hatch,  thus  elimi- 
nating any  danger  of  the  Avick  giving  out.  Turn  the  eggs  before 
caring  for  the  lamp,  so  that  there  Avill  be  no  chance  to  get  oil  on 
the  eggs.  The  flame  is  apt  to  increase  in  size  after  lighting,  so  that 
it  is  advisable  to  return  about  one-half  an  hour  after  tending  to  the 
lamp  to  see  that  the  flame  is  all  right. 

CARE  OF  MACHINE  AT  HATCHING  TIME. 

After  the  eggs  begin  to  hatch,  leave  the  machine  alone  until  the 
hatch  is  Avell  over.  Do  not  open  the  door  to  see  hoAV  the  eggs  are 
hatching,  as  it  alloAvs  the  moisture  to  escape,  Avhich  is  very  essential 
at  this  time.  Keep  the  incubator  dark  at  hatching  time  by  covering 
the  glass  in  the  door  with  a cloth  or  burlap  sack,  so  that  the  chicks 


12 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  585. 


will  not  be  attracted  to  the  front  of  the  machine  by  the  light  and 
become  restless.  When  the  chicks  are  all  hatched,  remove  the  egg 
tray  and  open  the  ventilators,  according  to  the  manufacturer’s  direc- 
tions, and  keep  them  in  the  incubator  from  24  to  30  hours  after  the 
hatch  is  over  before  removing  them  to  the  brooders.  If  they  are 
to  be  shipped  a long  distance  away,  so  that  they  will  be  on  the  road 
two  or  three  days,  it  is  better  to  ship  them  as  soon  as  the  hatch  is  over 
and  the  chicks  are  thoroughly  dry.  Chicks  which  pip,  but  are 
unable  to  get  out  of  the  shell  by  their  own  efforts,  rarely  amount  to 
much  if  helped  out,  although,  if  desired,  when  most  of  the  eggs  are 
hatched  and  the  chicks  dried  off,  so  that  they  will  not  be  injured  by 
opening  the  incubator  door,  an}^  which  have  pipped  may  be  helped 
out  by  cracking  the  shell  and  placing  them  back  on  the  egg  tray. 

TURNING  AND  COOLING  THE  EGGS. 

Eggs  should  be  turned  and  cooled  according  to  the  directions  fur- 
nished with  the  incubator.  The  eggs  are  usually  turned  for  the 
first  time  at  the  end  of  the  second  day  of  incubation  and  twice  daily 
through  the  eighteenth  or  nineteenth  day,  or  until  the  chicks  com- 
mence to  pip.  After  turning  the  eggs,  reverse  the  egg  trays  end 
for  end,  and  from  one  side  of  the  machine  to  the  other  in  two-tray 
incubators.  Keep  the  incubator  door  closed  while  turning  the  eggs, 
unless  the  directions  state  that  it  should  be  left  open.  Various 
mechanical  devices  have  been  invented  for  turning  the  eggs  in  the 
incubator,  but  most  poultrymen  prefer  to  shuffle  them  with  their 
hands,  removing  a few  from  the  center  of  the  tray  and  working  the 
others  toward  that  point,  placing  those  which  were  taken  out  on 
the  sides  of  the  tray.  Cracked  eggs  may  be  saved  by  putting  court- 
plaster  over  the  crack,  but  this  is  advisable  only  in  instances  where 
the  eggs  are  very  valuable.  The  length  of  time  to  cool  eggs  depends 
upon  the  temperature  of  the  incubator  room.  A good  general  rule 
is  to  leave  the  eggs  out  of  the  incubator  until  they  feel  slightly  cool 
to  the  hand,  face,  or  eyelid.  Cool  once  daily  after  the  seventh  and 
up  to  the  nineteenth  day.  Place  the  trays  of  eggs  on  the  top  of  the 
machine  or  on  a table  in  such  a position  that  they  are  not  in  a draft, 
and  so  that  the  tray  does  not  project  over  the  edge  of  its  support, 
thereby  allowing  part  of  the  eggs  to  cool  much  quicker  than  the  rest. 

MOISTURE  AND  VENTILATION. 

Moisture  and  ventilation  are  closely  related  factors  in  incubation, 
the  amount  of  each  depending  upon  the  other.  The  former  is  one 
of  the  uncertain  factors,  for  as  yet  no  very  satisfactory  rules  have 
been  evolved  Avhich  will  cover  all  conditions.  Good  hatches  are 
secured  both  with  and  without  using  moisture,  under  apparently 


INCUBATION  OF  HENS^  EGGS. 


13 


similar  conditions,  while  each  operator  generally  works  out  by 
experience  the  best  amount  of  moisture  to  use  under  his  conditions. 
The  moisture  and  ventilation  should,  Avith  correct  heat,  produce  a 
normal  chick  at  the  end  of  the  incubation  period.  Too  much  mois- 
ture may  prevent  the  normal  eva])oration  necessary  to  allow  enough 
space  for  the  chicken  to  turn  in  the  e^g  and  break  the  shell,  Avhile 
too  little  moisture  may  cause  the  chicken  to  become  dried  and  stick 
to  the  shell.  Moisture  is  used  extensively  in  hatching  in  the  South, 
in  high  altitudes,  and  in  places  Avhere  the  incubator  is  run  in  a dry 
room. 

^lany  methods  are  used  to  supply  moisture  in  incubators,  such  as 
sprinkling  the  eggs  with  Avarm  Avater  at  about  100°  F.,  or  placing  a 
pan  of  water,  a receptacle  containing  moist  sand,  or  a Avet  sponge 
beloAV  the  egg  tray.  Another  com- 
mon method  of  supphung  moisture 
is  to  sprinkle  or  soak  the  floor  of  the 
incubator  room  or  to  place  a pail  of 
Avater  under  the  lamp.  There  is  less 
danger  of  getting  too  much  moisture 
in  the  incubator  by  this  method  than 
by  putting  moisture  directly  into  the 
egg  chamber.  If  a moisture  tray  or 
sponge  haA^e  been  added  to  a non- 
moisture machine,  they  should  gen- 
erally be  taken  out  before  the  chicks 
pip.  The  question  of  moisture  de- 
pends largely  on  the  place  Avhere  the 
incubator  is  located.  If  run  in  a 
room  in  a dAvelling  house,  it  is  fre- 
quently necessary  to  add  moisture 
even  to  nonmoisture  machines,  Avhile 
such  machines  run  in  an  ordinary  cellar  in  the  same  building  might 
not  need  extra  moisture.  When  a large  number  of  machines  are 
operated  in  one  room  extra  moisture  is  more  necessary  than  if  only  a 
feAv  are  kept  together,  Avhile  more  moisture  must  be  supplied  in  a A^ery 
dry  than  in  a humid  climate. 

Figure  3 shoAvs  the  comparative  size  of  the  air  cell  on  the  seventh, 
fourteenth,  and  nineteenth  days  of  incubation.  This  air  cell  Agarics 
in  size  Avith  the  size  of  the  egg,  Avhile  the  shape  A’^aries  greatly  in  dif- 
ferent eggs.  Moisture  on  the  glass  door  of  the  incubator  during 
hatching  time  is  the  best  indication  of  correct  moisture  conditions 
during  incubation.  A good  way  to  learn  the  proper  amount  of 
eA^aporation  during  incubation  is  to  set  one  or  tAvo  hens  Avhen  start- 
ing the  incubator,  and  compare  the  size  of  the  air  cell  in  the  eggs 


Pig.  3. — Diagram  showing'  the  air  cell 
on  the  seventh,  fourteenth,  and  nine- 
teenth day  of  incubation. 


14 


FARMERS^  riUl>LETIN  585. 


Tinder  these  two  conditions  when  testing  on  the  seventh  and  fonr- 
teenth  days.  As  the  weather  becomes  warmer  more  moisture  is 
generally  used  than  earlier  in  the  season.  Many  operators  add 
moisture  only  during  the  latter  part  of  the  hatch,  generally  on  the 
sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  days. 

TESTING  EGGS. 

An  egg,  whether  impregnated  or  not,  has  a small  grayish  spot  on 
the  surface  of  the  yolk  known  as  the  “ germinal  spot.'’  As  soon  as  a 
fertile  egg  is  placed  under  a hen,  or  in  an  incubator,  development 
begins.  All  eggs  should  be  tested  at  least  twice  during  the  period 
of  incubation,  preferably  on  the  seventh  and  fourteenth  days,  and  the 
infertile  eggs  and  dead  germs  removed.  IVhite  eggs  can  be  tested 
on  the  fourth  or  fifth  day,  Avhile  the  development  in  eggs  having 
brown  shells  often  can  not  be  seen  by  the  use  of  an  ordinary  egg 
tester  until  the  seventh  day.  Dead  germs  soon  decay  and  give  off  a 
bad  odor  if  alloAved  to  remain  in  an  incubator.  Infertile  eggs  make 
good  feed  for  young  chickens,  and  are  often  used  in  the  home  for 
culinary  purposes.  Most  incubator  companies  furnish  testing  chim- 
neys with  their  machines  Avhich  will  fit  the  incubator  lamps.  Elec- 
tric or  gas  lamps  may  be  used  in  a box  with  a hole  slightly  smaller 
than  an  egg  cut  in  the  side  of  the  box  and  at  the  same  level  as  the 
light.  They  may  also  be  tested  by  sunlight,  or  daylight,  using  a 
shutter  or  curtain  with  a small  hole  in  it  for  the  light  to  shine 
through. 

A good  homemade  egg  tester,  or  candler,  can  be  made  with  a large 
shoe  box,  or  any  box  that  is  large  enough  to  go  over  a lamp,  by  re- 
moving the  end  and  cutting  a hole  a little  larger  than  the  size  of  a 
quarter  in  the  bottom  of  the  box,  so  that  when  it  is  set  over  a kero- 
sene lamp  the  hole  in  the  bottom  will  be  opposite  the  blaze.  A hole 
the  size  of  a silver  dollar  should  be  cut  in  the  top  of  the  box  to  allow 
the  heat  to  escape. 

The  eggs  are  tested  with  the  large  end  up,  so  that  the  size  of  the 
air  cell  may  be  seen  as  well  as  the  condition  of  the  embryo.  The 
testing  should  take  place  in  a dark  room.  The  infertile  egg  when 
held  before  the  small  hole  with  the  lamp  lighted  inside  the  box  will 
look  perfectly  clear,  the  same  as  a fresh  one,  while  a fertile  egg  will 
show  a small  dark  spot,  known  as  the  embryo,  with  a mass  of  little 
blood  veins  extending  in  all  directions,  if  the  embryo  is  living;  if 
dead,  and  the  egg  has  been  incubated  for  at  least  4G’ hours,  the  blood 
settles  away  from  the  embryo  toward  the  edges  of  the  yolk,  forming 
in  some  cases  an  irregular  circle  of  blood,  known  as  a blood  ring. 
Eggs  vary  in  this  respect,  some  showing  only  a streak  of  blood.  All 


INCUBATION  OF  HENS^  EGGS. 


15 


infertile  eggs  should  be  removed  at  the  first  test.  The  eggs  con- 
taining strong,  living  embryos  are  dark  and  well  filled  up  on  the 
fourteenth  day,  and  sIioav  a clear,  sharp,  distinct  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  air  cell  and  the  growing  embryo,  while  dead  germs  show 
only  partial  development,  and  lack  this  clear,  distinct  outline. 

CAUSES  OF  POOR  HATCHES. 

The  cause  of  poor  hatches  is  a much-discussed  question,  which 
depends  on  a great  variety  of  circumstances.  A poor  hatch  is  more 
apt  to  be  due  to  the  condition  of  the  eggs  previous  to  hatching  than 
to  incubation,  although  improper  handling  of  either  factor  will  pro- 
duce the  same  results.  When  eggs  fail  to  hatch,  see  whether  the 
breeding  stock  is  kept  under  conditions  which  tend  to  produce 
strong,  fertile  germs  in  the  eggs,  if  the  eggs  have  been  handled  prop- 
erly before  incubation,  and  whether  the  conditions  were  right  dur- 
ing incubation,  as  judged  by  the  time  of  the  hatch. 

A daily  temperature  record  should  be  kept  of  each  machine.  The 
operator  can  thus  compare  the  temperature  at  which  the  machines 
have  been  kept,  which  may  prove  of  value  in  the  future  work,  espe- 
cially if  the  brooder  records  can  be  checked  back  against  those  of  the 
incubator. 


DISINFECTING  AND  STORING  INCUBATORS. 

After  the  hatching  season  is  over,  clean  and  disinfect  the  incu- 
bators, empty  the  lamps,  and  carefully  store  the  parts  in  the  machine. 
Lamps  containing  oil  which  are  left  in  their  proper  place  on  the 
incubator  for  some  time  after  the  hatching  season  is  over  will  cause 
trouble  when  it  is  started  again,  as  the  oil  tends  to  work  up  into  the 
hood.  The  incubator  should  be  disinfected  once  a year,  or  oftener  if 
any  disease  is  present  in  the  hens  or  chickens.  Some  operators 
prefer  to  disinfect  their  incubators  before  or  after  each  hatch.  A 
strong  solution  of  a reliable  coal-tar  disinfectant  may  be  used  to 
wash  out  the  machine  and  to  disinfect  the  egg  trays  and  nursery 
drawer.  If  the  burlap  on  the  bottom  of  the  incubator  is  very  dirty 
it  may  be  cheaper  to  renew  than  to  clean  it.  For  an  incubator  of 
about  3 cubic  feet  capacity  one  may  pour  one-half  ounce  of  formalin, 
which  contains  10  per  cent  formaldehyde,  on  one-half  ounce  of  per- 
manganate of  potash,  in  a pan  in  the  incubator,  which  produces  a 
very  penetrating  gas  and  thoroughly  disinfects  the  machine.  The 
door  of  the  incubator  should  be  closed  just  as  soon  as  the  liquid  is 
poured  into  the  pan,  and  left  closed  for  12  hours  or  longer.  Incu- 
bators should  be  well  aired  before  they  are  used  after  disinfecting, 
especially  when  formaldehyde  or  any  disinfectant  which  produces 
a gas  has  been  used. 


16 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  585. 


SUMMARY. 

FolloAY  the  nianufacturer’s  directions  in  setting  up  and  operating 
an  incubator. 

See  that  the  incubator  is  running  steadily  at  the  desired  tempera- 
ture before  filling  with  eggs.  Do  not  add  fresh  eggs  to  a tray  con- 
taining eggs  which  are  undergoing  incubation. 

Turn  the  eggs  twice  daily  after  the  second  and  until  the  nineteenth 
day.  Cool  the  eggs  once  daily,  according  to  the  weather,  from  the 
seventh  to  the  nineteenth  day. 

Turn  the  eggs  before  caring  for  the  lamps. 

Attend  to  the  machine  carefully  at  regular  hours. 

Keep  the  lamp  and  wick  clean. 

Test  the  eggs  on  the  seventh  and  fourteenth  days. 

Do  not  open  the  machine  after  the  eighteenth  day  until  the  chickens 
are  hatched. 

o 


WASHINGTON  ; GOVTORNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


W.  77  3-|, 

US. DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  W.  A.  Taylor,  Chief, 
and  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  A.  C.  True,  Director. 

June  3,  1914. 

COLLECTION  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  PLANT  MATERIAL  FOR 
USE  IN  THE  STUDY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


By  H.  B.  Derr,  Agent  and  Agronomist,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  and  0.  11.  Lane, 
Chief  Specialist  in  Agricultural  Education,  Ojjice  of  Experiment  Stations. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  purpose  of  this  [)ulletin  is  to  suggest  methods  of  collecting, 
)reparing,  mounting,  and  preserving  plant  specimens  of  various 
.orts  which  can  be  used  by  teachers  of  agriculture.  To  instructors 
n agriculture  who  have  had  special  training  along  these  lines,  doubt- 
ess  many  of  the  suggestions  here  given  will  seem  superfluous;  but 
here  are  many  teachers  who  are  called  upon  to  teach  agriculture 
\^ho  have  not  had  such  training,  and  who  will  doubtless  welcome 
pecific  information  as  to  how  to  prepare  the  materials  needed  for 
llustration  and  demonstration  purposes  in  the  classroom. 

WHAT  MATERIALS  SHOULD  BE  COLLECTED. 

The  nature  of  the  materials  which  the  teacher  should  collect  will 
lepend,  of  course,  upon  the  character  of  the  school  and  the  class  of 
A^ork  which  is  taken  up  by  the  pupils,  as  well  as  upon  the  locality, 
.he  funds  available,  and  the  time  which  the  pupils  and  teacher  can 
levote  to  the  work. 

In  general,  the  illustrative  materials  with  which  every  school 
ihould  be  provided  may  be  grouped  into  two  classes,  according  to  the 
ases  to  which  they  are  to  be  put:  (1)  Museum  specimens  and  samples, 
vhich  are  to  be  kept  permanently  for  reference,  display,  and  strictly 
llustrative  purposes  only;  and  (2)  working  collections,  which  may 
)G  used  for  display  and  illustration  but  the  chief  purpose  of  which 
s to  supply  the  pupils  with  materials  for  class  study  and  experi- 
nental  use.  For  instructional  purposes,  the  latter  group  is  by  fai- 
lle more  valuable,  but  a permanent  collection  of  specimens  and 
samples  of  various  seeds,  plants,  and  other  materials  may  be  very 
useful  to  any  school,  provided,  of  course,  the  specimens  are  accu- 
rately labeled  and  so  preserved  and  mounted  that  they  are  readily 
available  for  examination. 


Note. — This  bulletin  is  designed  for  the  use  of  rural  teachers  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 


38787°— 14— 1 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  586. 


Materials  for  class  use  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  fresh  and  in 
the  natural  state,  rather  than  dried  or  preserved,  and  should,  there- 
fore, generally  be  collected  just  prior  to  the  time  they  are  wanted  and 
put  away  only  temporarily.  No  great  degree  of  care  or  skill  will,  in 
general,  be  necessary  to  do  this.  But  for  a permanent  collection  in 
a school  museum  considerable  technical  knowledge  and  ingenuity  are 
often  required  in  preparing  and  preserving  the  specimens  and  pre- 
paring convenient  receptacles  in  which  to  keep  them.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  where  the  means  at  hand  are  limited  and  the  resource- 
fulness of  the  teacher  must  be  relied  upon  to  produce  inexpensive 
methods  and  devices  of  home  manufacture. 

No  directions  are  included  in  this  bulletin  for  the  collection  of 
birds’  eggs  or  bird  specimens,  since  it  is  believed  not  to  be  wise  to 
do  this  in  the  ordinary  school  because  of  the  destruction  of  bird  life 
which  would  be  likely  to  result  and  the  wrong  impressions  the  pupils 
might  gain. 

SOURCES  OF  MATERIALS. 

In  recent  years,  many  commercial  houses,  educational  institutions, 
and  Government  bureaus  have  made  a practice  of  distributing  col- 
lections of  specimens  and  samples  of  various  sorts  to  schools.  Such 
collections  are  of  great  value,  undoubtedly,  and  there  is  no  objection 
whatsoever  to  schools  securing  materials  from  such  sources  whenever 
possible,  so  long  as  they  do  not  rely  upon  these  sources  for  all  their 
illustrative  material.  But  it  is  a much  better  practice  to  have  the 
pupils  collect  and  prepare  their  own  materials  as  far  as  possible  from 
original  local  sources,  because  of  the  educational  possibilities  involved 
in  the  process  of  gathering  the  various  specimens. 

Almost  any  locality  affords  supplies  of  seed,  plant,  and  wood  speci- 
mens, and  other  materials  of  vital  importance  in  the  study  of  agricul- 
ture; and  the  work  of  gathering  these  specimens  will  afford  definite 
tasks  upon  which  to  center  the  interest  of  numerous  field  trips,  so  that 
the  danger  of  aimless  wandering  which  so  frequently  makes  this 
method  of  instruction  devoid  of  practical  results  may  be  minimized. 
The  instructor  who  takes  his  class  out  into  the  field  with  the  definite 
purpose  of  collecting  specimens  of  weed  seeds,  for  example,  has  the 
very  best  possible  opportunity  at  the  same  time  to  teach  not  only 
identification  of  the  local  weed  species  but  also  useful  facts  as  to 
their  relations  to  soil  and  climate. 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FIELD  WORK. 

It  is  important  that  complete  and  accurate  records  should  be  kept 
for  each  specimen  collected  in  order  to  supply  the  data  necessary  for 
the  proper  labeling  of  the  mounted  specimen.  Sometimes,  as  m the 
case  of  wood  specimens,  it  will  be  necessary  to  mark  each  sample  in 


COLLECTION  OF  PLANT  MATERIAL  FOR  STUDY. 


3 


the  field,  as  soon  as  it  is  obtained,  with  the  name  of  the  tree  from 
which  it  is  taken,  in  order  to  prevent  mistakes  in  naming  the 
mounted  specimens.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  instructor  to 
make  the  fieldwork  teach  something  besides  mere  methods  of  col- 
lecting, and,  with  this  in  view,  the  pupils  should  also  be  provided 
with  notebooks  and  pencils  for  making  memoranda  of  things  learned 
on  the  trip. 

All  work  of  this  sort  should  be  constructive  and  never  destructive. 
Indiscriminate  picking  or  digging  of  wild  flowers  or  unnecessary  cut- 
tmg  of  branches  of  trees  should  not  be  permitted.  Whenever  it  is 
necessary  to  obtain  a specimen  of  a desirable  plant  or  wood,  that 
plant  should  be  taken  which  can  be  best  spared,  if  there  is  any 
choice.  If  a branch  must  be  cut  from  a tree,  see  that  when  it  is 
done  the  tree  will  be  the  better  olf  for  the  pruning. 

SUGGESTIONS  CONCERNING  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIALS. 

When  plants  or  other  materials  are  collected  for  ordinary  purposes 
of  study  and  reference,  it  will  generally  suffice  to  arrange  the  speci- 
mens in  their  logical  order,  according  to  their  scientific  classifications. 
When,  however,  it  is  intended  to  prepare  a set  of  specimens  for  an 
educational  display,  very  interesting  and  attractive  groups  can  be 
arranged  to  show  strikingly  the  agricultural  relationships  of  the 
particular  plants  in  question.  For  example,  a display  centered  about 
some  particular  agricultural  crop  plant  might  show  the  different 
types  or  varieties  of  the  plant  itself;  the  commercial  products  manu- 
factured from  it;  the  enemies,  such  as  insects  and  plant  diseases, 
from  whose  attacks  it  needs  protection;  and  pictures  showing  meth- 
ods of  cultivating  and  harvesting  the  crop.  A display  might  be  cen- 
tered about  some  farm  insect  pest  so  as  to  show  the  insect  in  the 
various  stages  of  its  development ; specimens  of  the  plant  upon  which 
it  feeds,  showing  the  injury  it  does  to  these  plants;  specimens  of 
other  insects  which  are  hostile  to  it;  and  pictures  of  birds  which  prey 
upon  it.  Exhibits  such  as  these  take  time  to  prepare,  but  they  will 
prove  enough  more  attractive  than  an  ordinary  collection  to  warrant 
the  extra  labor  and  thought  involved  in  their  preparation. 

COLLECTION  OF  PLANT  SPECIMENS. 

WHAT  PLANTS  TO  COLLECT. 

In  the  collection  of  plant  specimens  for  use  in  the  agriculture  class 
it  will  be  obvious  that  plants  of  purely  botanical  interest  need  not  be 
included.  In  general,  the  plants  which  should  be  collected  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups:  (1)  Plants  of  value  to  the  farmer,  both 
cultivated  and  wild;  and  (2)  noxious  plants  or  weeds.  As  a subclass 
of  the  noxious  plants,  special  attention  should  be  given  to  poisonous 
plants,  with  a view  to  making  the  pupils  familiar  with  them  so  as  to 


4 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  586. 


prevent  personal  injury  from  poisoning  as  well  as  to  euahle  them  to 
take  proper  steps  for  the  eradication  of  these  particularly  undesirable 
members  of  the  weed  class. 

HOW  TO  COLLECT. 

When  starting  out  to  collect  specimens  it  will  be  necessary  for 
the  pupil  to  be  provided  with  some  sort  of  receptacle  in  which  to 
carry  the  specimens.  The  best  thing  for  this  purpose  is  undoubtedly 
a tin  botanical  specimen  case,  such  as  may  be  purchased  from  any 
school-supply  house.  But  where  such  a case  is  not  available  almost 
any  sort  of  covered  box,  such  as  a pasteboard  shoe  box,  for  example, 
may  be  used  as  a substitute,  provided  it  is  large  enough  to  allow  the 
j)lants  to  be  placed  in  it  without  crushing.  A cover  to  the  box  is 
essential,  for  the  specimens  must  be  kept  moist  until  they  can  be 
carried  home  and  prepared  for  pressing. 

In  collecting  s[)ecimens  of  the  smaller  plants  it  will  generally  be 
desirable  to  secure  them  roots  and  all,  since  many  of  the  grasses  and 
sedges  can  be  best  identified  when  the  root  systems  are  available  for 
examination.  With  many  of  the  flowering  plants,  however,  it  will 
be  neither  necessary  nor  desirable  that  the  roots  be  taken  up,  since 
to  do  so  would  increase  the  possibility  of  exterminating  desirable 
species,  and  the  roots,  in  many  cases,  will  not  be  essential  to  the 
study  of  the  plant. 

Unlike  the  collection  of  specimens  for  botanical  use,  the  collection 
of  plants  for  study  in  connection  with  agricultural  work  generally 
necessitates  the  identification  of  the  plant  in  the  field;  otherwise 
the  pupils  can  not  know  whether  or  not  the  species  in  question  is  of 
any  importance  agriculturally.  Assuming,  then,  that  the  identity 
of  the  plant  is  known,  it  will  be  obvious  that  later  possibility  of 
confusion  of  identities  should  be  guarded  against  by  properly  label- 
ing each  specimen  as  it  is  collected.  For  this  reason  before  going  into 
the  field  it  will  be  well  to  provide  a quantity  of  labels  with  strings 
attached  to  them,  so  that  one  of  these  may  be  readily  tied  to  each 
plant  as  it  is  gathered.  This  label  should  remain  constantly  attached 
to  the  specimen  while  it  is  being  pressed  and  until  it  is  finally  mounted 
in  permanent  form. 

HOW  TO  PREPARE  PLANT  SPECIMENS  FOR  MOUNTING. 

Most  of  the  specimens  of  plants  obtained  for  agricultural  study 
will  have  to  be  pressed  in  order  to  prepare  them  for  final  mounting. 
Various  devices  may  be  adapted  for  use  in  pressing  plants,  some  of 
which  will  be  familiar  to  all  teachers  of  botany  or  agriculture.  Per- 
haps the  simplest  method  is  to  place  the  plant,  carefully  arranged  so 
as  to  avoid  folding  or  crushing,  between  two  layers  of  blotting  paper, 
and  place  on  these  a flat  board  on  which  is  placed  a heavy  weight. 


COLLECTION  OF  PLANT  MATERIAL  FOR  STUDY. 


5 


It  is  suggested,  however,  that  instead  of  blotting  paper,  driers  be 
used,  made  of  sheets  cut  from  felt  paper  such  as  is  placed  beneath 
carpets.  This  paper  will  readily  absorb  the  moisture  from  the  plant. 


Fig.  1.— Home-made  plant  press,  showing  method  of  arranging  rope  to  get  greatest  pressure. 


but  the  driers  should  be  changed  twice  each  day  for  the  first  two 
days,  and  once  each  day  for  a week  thereafter  to  give  the  best  re- 
sults. Instead  of  the  old  method  of  using  weights,  a very  good  plan 


6 


farmers'  bulletin  58G. 


is  to  use  a set  of  pressing  frames  such  as  those  shown  in  figure  ] . 
These  frames  may  be  made  of  strips  ^ inch  thick,  IJ  inches  wide, 
and  8 inches  long.  Each  frame  is  12  inches  wide,  the  crosspieces 
being  14  inches  long,  so  that  they  project  1 inch  beyond  the  edge  on 
each  side,  in  order  that  the  two  sections  may  be  easily  bound  to- 
gether by  passing  cords  about  these  projecting  ends.  Ordinary  cot- 
ton clotheslines  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  By  adjusting  tlie 
cord  as  shown  in  the  illustration  (fig.  1),  a considerable  pressure  can 
be  secured  with  little  effort. 

A frame  of  this  size  is  necessary  in  order  to  contain  pressing 
papers  of  the  standard  size  used  by  botanists  (12  by  17  inches)  but 
a smaller  size  may  be  used  if  desired.  If  a plant  is  too  long  to  go 
into  the  press,  it  may  be  bent  in  the  shape  of  a “ V’  or  an  N 
or  a portion  of  the  stem  at  the  base  may  be  discarded,  showing 
only  the  roots  and  basal  leaves  and  the  upper  two-thirds  of 
the  plant. 

MOUNTING. 

Ordinarily,  dried  plant  specimens  are  best  kept  in  herbarium 
books  such  as  may  be  obtained,  in  various  sizes,  from  school-supply 
houses.  The  herbarium  sheet  used  by  botanists  is  11 J by  IGJ  inches 
in  size,  and  the  plant,  after  being  properly  pressed  and  dried,  is 
either  glued  to  the  sheet  or  fastened  to  it  with  slips  of  gummed 
cloth  or  paper.  The  mounted  specimens  are  then  grouped  according 
to  genera,  each  genus  being  inclosed  in  a separate  cover  of  strong 
manila  paper. 

For  convenient  filing  of  the  specimens  a suitable  herbarium  case 
can  be  easily  made  out  of  a cracker  box  by  putting  partitions  about 
4 inches  apart  in  it  for  shelves.  The  box  should  be  fitted  with  a 
tight  door  and  should  be  lined  with  heavy  building  paper  to  keep 
out  insects  and  dust. 

Wliere  it  is  desired  to  arrange  the  plant  specimens  so  that  each 
specimen  may  be  constantly  displayed,  or  where  specimens  such  as 
heads  of  grain,  which  can  not  be  pressed,  are  to  be  mounted,  another 
plan  must  be  followed.  For  use  in  such  cases  a device  has  been 
patented  which  affords  the  advantage  of  an  attractive  arrangement 
for  display  purposes  and  of  the  ready  examination  of  the  specimen 
without  the  necessity  of  its  coming  into  contact  with  the  hands  of 
the  observer.  The  plan  followed  is  to  mount  the  specimen  on  cotton 
in  a box  having  a glass  cover  and  a loose  back  which  may  be  fastened 
down  tightly  upon  the  cotton  so  as  to  hold  the  specimen  embedded 
in  the  cotton  against  the  glass,  through  which  it  may  be  examined. 
The  object  to  be  mounted  is  placed  in  the  mount  upon  the  glass  face 
down;  upon  it  are  placed  layers  of  cotton  batting  so  as  to  fill  the 
box  completely  (fig.  2),  the  back  is  then  put  on  and  fastened  down 


COT.LECTIOX  OF  PLANT  MATERIAL  FOR  STUDY. 


7 


tightly  upon  the  cotton,  thus  holding  the  object  securely  in  phic(' 
against  the  glass  front  (fig.  3).  Glass-covered  mounting  boxes,  like 
that  described,  generally  made  of  heavy  cardboard,  can  be  purchased 
in  various  sizes  from  supply  houses. 

A few  plant  specimens,  such  as  some  of  the  fleshy  fruits  or  roots 
of  leguminous  plants  showing  nodules,  can  not  be  satisfactorily  pre- 
served by  drying.  Such  specimens  maybe  preserved  in  glass  jars  in 
preservative  fluids.  A large-mouthed  receptacle  of  some  sort  is 
required  for  this  purpose.  The  best  Idnd  is,  of  course,  the  square 


Fig.  2.— Met  hod  of  mounting  heads  of  grain  under  glass. 


museum  jar,  but  lacking  this  the  next  best  thing  is  an  ordinary  fruit 
jar.  Delicate  specimens  of  this  sort  must  be  carefully  protected  in 
the  field,  when  being  collected,  from  excessive  drying  or  bruising. 
This  can  be  done  by  wrapping  each  specimen  separately  in  pieces  of 
moist  newspaper.  Specimens  of  roots  and  similar  articles  should  ])e 
carefully  washed  before  mounting.  An  old  toothbrush  will  be  found 
to  be  an  excellent  thing  for  this  purpose,  since  by  its  use  particles  of 
dh*t  which  would  otherwise  be  hard  to  get  at  can  be  easily  removed. 
After  being  washed  the  specimen  may  be  placed  in  a 2 or  3 per  cent 
solution  of  formalin  (using  formalin  with  a strength  of  40  per  cent 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  586. 


Fig.  3.  -Heads  of  grain  mounted  under  glass. 


COLLECTION  OF  PLANT  MATERIAL  FOR  STUDY. 


9 


formaldehyde)  for  several  days,  after  which  it  should  be  placed  in  a 
jar  containing  a 5 per  cent  solution  of  formalin.  A simple  method 
of  arranging  a delicate  plant  so  that  it  shows  well  in  the  jar  is  to 
attach  a fine  thread  to  the  specimen  and  suspend  it  thus  in  the  fluid. 
By  holding  the  end  of  the  thread  in  the  left  hand  while  the  cover  of 
the  jar  is  put  on,  the  thread  may  be  fastened  so  as  to  hold  the  speci- 
men in  any  position  desired. 

PRESERVING  MOUNTED  SPECIMENS. 

Specimens  mounted  in  fluids,  as  last  described,  will,  of  course,  need 
no  protection  from  insects  or  mice.  But  herbarium  specimens  and 
those  mounted  in  frames  under  glass  will  be  subject  to  such  attack 
and  should  be  protected.  A good  plan  is  to  place  in  the  herbarium 
case  or  mounting  frames  a few  ordinary  moth  balls  or  a few  naphtha- 
lin  flakes.  These  will  generally  suffice  to  keep  out  injurious  insects. 

COLLECTION  OF  SEEDS  AND  GRAINS. 

WHAT  SEEDS  TO  COLLECT. 

This  collection  should  include  seeds  of  plants  similar  in  character 
to  those  suggested  for  collection  as  plant  specimens.  One  of  the 
first  collections  to  be  made  should  be  samples  of  the  seeds  of  local 
weeds,  especially  those  weed  seeds  likely  to  be  found  mixed  with 
farm  seeds  such  as  clover  or  small  grains  and  difficult  to  distinguish 
from  them.  Careful  study  of  such  weed  seeds  will  help  the  pupils  to 
detect  adulterations  and  impurities  of  commercial  seeds.  Another 
collection  should  be  made  of  the  seeds  of  various  crop-producing 
plants,  showing  different  species  and  types.  Care  of  course  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  these  samples  are  pure  and  true  to  type  if  they  are 
to  be  of  any  help. 

HOW  TO  COLLECT  SEEDS. 

A good  plan  for  collecting  seeds  in  the  field  is  to  place  the  seeds, 
as  gathered,  in  ordinary  paper  envelopes,  writing  upon  each  envelope 
the  name  of  the  plant  from  which  the  sample  is  taken,  with  such 
other  data  as  may  be  desired,  such  as  the  date,  locality,  etc.  Small 
cloth  bags,  such  as  those  in  which  salt  is  sold,  may  be  used  instead 
of  envelopes,  if  desired,  and  they  are  less  likely  to  become  torn.  If 
the  cloth  bags  are  used,  a slip  of  paper  on  which  is  written  the  neces- 
sary data  concerning  each  specimen  should  go  into  each  bag  with  the 
the  seeds.  It  will  also  be  found  convenient  to  take  along  a botanical 
collecting  case,  hand  satchel,  or  a box  of  some  sort  in  which  to  carry 
the  envelopes  or  bags  containing  the  samples  of  seed. 

38787°— 14 2 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  58(5. 


Fig.  4.— Permanent  collection  of  farm  seeds  for  school  use. 


COLLECTION  OF  PLANT  MATERIAL  FOR  STUDY. 


11 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  SEEDS  FOR  MOUNTING. 

All  seed  specimens  should  be  carefully  cleaned  of  chaff  and  impuri- 
ties before  they  are  put  into  the  receptacles  in  which  they  are  to 
be  finally  kept.  After  being  cleaned  they  should  be  treatecl  with 
carbon  bisulphid  or  with  formaldehyde,  in  order  to  kill  any  injurious 
insects  or  larvie  which  may  be  concealed  in  or  upon  them.  This 
can  be  done  by  placing  the  seed  in  a receptacle  and  pouring  upon  a 


Fig.  5.— Students’  collection  of  farm  seeds. 


piece  of  cotton  placed  on  a saucer  in  this  receptacle  enough  of  the 
carbon  bisulphid  or  formaldehyde  to  thoroughly  wet  the  cotton, 
then  closing  the  cover  of  the  receptacle  tightly  so  as  to  keep  in  the 
fumes.  Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  the  carbon  bisulphid 
near  a fire,  or  to  strike  a match  while  it  is  being  used,  since  it  is  very 
inflammable  and  may  explode  if  not  properly  handled.  The  fumes 
of  both  carbon  bisulphid  and  formaldehyde  are  very  disagreeable 
and  inhaling  them  should  be  avoided. 


12 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  586. 


MOUNTING  AND  STORING  SEED  SAMPLES. 

There  are  numerous  methods  by  which  seeds  may  be  stored  for 
use.  The  best  method  will  depend  upon  the  purpose  for  which  the 
samples  are  to  be  used  and  the  quantity  of  seed. 

One  of  the  simplest  and  most  convenient  methods  of  mounting 
samples  of  small  seeds  for  study  and  display  is  to  place  the  samples 
in  small  glass  vials  of  2 or  3 dram  size,  these  vials  being  then  placed 
in  a strong  cardboard  box  arranged  with  a separate  compartment  for 
each  vial  (fig.  4).  Vials  with  screw  tops  are  better  for  this  pur- 
pose than  those  with  ordinary  corks,  since  they  protect  the  seeds 


Fig.  6.— Cloth  case  for  carrying  samples  of  farm  seeds  in  vials. 

more  securely  from  insects.  The  vials  should  be  labeled,  each  with 
the  name  of  the  kind  of  seed  it  contains,  the  place  and  date  of  col- 
lection, and  any  other  data  desired. 

If  the  cardboard  box  with  compartments  as  suggested  can  not  be 
obtained,  simple  holders  or  cases  of  various  kinds  can  easily  be  made 
which  will  serve  the  purpose  very  well.  One  such  holder  isnndicated 
in  figure  5.  In  this  the  vials  are  held  in  place  by  means  of  shoe  laces 
passed  alternately  over,  then  under,  the  vials  and  through  the  back 
of  the  box.  Another  holder  which  is  especially  convenient  for  use 
in  carrying  vials  of  this  sort  from  place  to  place,  but  not  so  satisfac- 


COLLECTION  OF  PLANT  MATERIAL  FOR  STUDY. 


13 


Fig.  7.— Rack  for  displaying  samples  of  farm  seeds. 


14 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  586, 


Fig.  8.— Sample  of  wheat  displayed  in  glass-covered  box. 


COLLECTION  OF  PLANT  MATERIAL  FOR  STUDY. 


15 


tory  for  displaying  them,  can  be  made  of  cloth,  as  shown  in  figure  6. 
In  this  holder  strips  are  sewed  upon  a rectangular  piece  of  cloth  so 
as  to  form  rows  of  pockets,  each  pocket  being  just  large  enough  to 
receive  one  of  the  vials  containing  the  seed  samples. 

When  it  is  desired  to  preserve  larger  quantities  of  seeds  for  future 
study  or  grains  for  experimental  planting,  larger  glass  bottles  or  jars 


Fig.  9.- -Simple  method  of  making  a seed-identification  chart. 


with  screw  tops  or  ordinary  fruit  jars  may  be  used.  Of  the  different 
kinds  of  fruit  jars  those  with  glass  tops  which  seal  with  wires  will 
probably  be  best.  But  the  square  glass  bottles  take  up  less  space 
(fig.  7).  The  rack  shown  in  figure  7 is  convenient  for  holding  these 
jars,  but  they  may  be  placed  upon  tables  or  shelves  if  desired. 


16 


farmers'  bulletin  586. 


Another  good  scheme  for  making  attractive  displays  of  seeds  and 
grains  is  to  place  the  samples  under  glass  in  boxes  like  that  shown 
in  figure  8.  Such  a plan  has  also  the  advantage  of  affording  good 
opportunity  for  the  close  examination  of  the  sample  wdthout  the 
necessity  of  handling  it.  The  boxes  for  this  purpose  may  be  made 
in  the  manner  described  below. 

When  only  small  quantities  of  seeds  are  available  for  mounting, 
and  it  is  desired  to  display  the  samples  to  better  advantage  than  by 
the  use  of  vials,  a convenient  mounting  rack  is  easily  made  as  fol- 
lows: Get  a pane  of  clear  glass  about  10  by  12  inches  in  size  (or  any 


Fig.  10. — Seed  samples  mounted  between  panes  of  glass. 


other  size  that  may  be  desired)  and  two  pieces  of  ^-inch  board  of 
some  soft  light  wood,  such  as  poplar  or  basswood,  of  the  same 
dimensions  as  the  pane  of  glass  or  slightly  larger.  On  one  of  these 
boards  rule  lines  both  ways,  spacing  them  about  IJ  inches  apart. 
At  each  of  the  intersections  of  these  lines  bore  1-inch  holes  through 
the  board.  Now  nail  or  glue  this  board  to  the  other  one.  Each  of 
the  holes  in  the  upper  board  will  then  form  a pocket,  in  which  a 
sample  of  seed  or  grain  may  be  placed.  A label  with  the  name  of 
the  kind  of  seed  and  the  place  and  date  of  collection  should  be  pasted 
beneath  each  pocket.  By  arranging  them  in  a form  and  color  series. 


COLLECTION  OF  PT.ANT  MATERIAl.  FOR  STUDY. 


17 


as  shown  in  figure  9,  comparison  and  identification  are  facilitate!]. 
The  pane  of  glass  should  now  be  put  on  to  form  a cover  for  all  the 
pockets,  thus  holding  the  seeds  securely  in  place.  The  glass  may  be 
held  tightly  over  the  pockets  by  placing  the  whole  mount  in  an  ordi- 
nary picture  frame  and  fastening  it  in  with  small  nails.  In  the  case 
of  small  seeds,  sheets  of  heavy  cardboard  maybe  substituted  for  the 
pieces  of  board,  and  the  cardboard  and  glass  may  be  held  together 
by  binding  the  edges  with  gummed  paper,  such  as  the  ordinary  passe- 
partout binding,  instead  of  putting  the  mount  into  a frame  (fig.  10). 
By  using  smaller  jianes  of  glass,  such  as  discarded  photographic 


Fig.  11.— Using  the  microscope  to  study  seed  samples. 


plates,  numerous  small  mounts  may  be  made  which  may  be  easily 
handed  about  in  the  class.  This  method  of  mounting  has  another 
great  advantage  in  that  when  mounted  in  this  way  the  seeds  may  be 
easily  examined  under  a microscope  (fig.  11). 

PRESERVING  SEED  SPECIMENS. 

Seeds  treated  as  previously  directed  and  mounted  in  tightly  closed 
vials,  jars,  or  in  the  tight  frames  described  will  not  be  very  likely  to 
suffer  damage  from  insects  or  other  sources.  As  a further  precau- 
tion, however,  in  the  case  of  jars  that  are  opened  frequently,  it  may 
be  well  to  drop  into  each  receptacle  a few  moth  balls.  This  will 
prevent  insect  attack  for  some  time. 


18  FARMERS^  BULLETIN  58G. 

COLLECTION  OF  WOOD  SPECIMENS. 

HOW  TO  COLLECT. 

The  best  time  to  collect  wood  specimens  is  in  the  autumn,  when 
the  fruit  is  more  or  less  mature  and  the  leaves  have  not  yet  fallen, 
for  the  leaves  and  fruit  are  often  important  aids  in  determining  the 
identity  of  the  trees,  and  the  wood  at  this  season  contains  less 
moisture  than  earlier  in  the  season. 

The  specimen  should,  as  far  as  possible,  display  features  of  bark 
and  wood  that  will  be  characteristic  of  the  tree  from  which  it  is 
taken.  It  is  important  to  note  that  there  is  much  difference  in  the 
appearance  of  the  bark  between  the  young  tree  and  the  old  one  of 
the  same  species;  likewise,  between  the  base  of  the  trunk  and  the 
upper  part  and  the  branches.  The  aim  should  be,  therefore,  to  get 
specimens  which  will  not  be  misleading,  such  as  would  be  the  case  if 
one  took  the  sample  from  the  smooth-barked  young  branch  of  a 
rough-barked  tree.  It  will  generally  be  impossible,  however,  to  pro- 
cure specimens  from  the  base  of  the  tree  trunk.  Probably  the  best 
plan  will  be  to  cut  a section  8 or  10  inches  long  from  a branch  not 
less  than  3 or  4 inches  in  diameter,  on  which  the  bark  is  as  nearly 
characteristic  as  possible.  Young  trees  should  never  be  cut  down  to 
get  sections  from  the  trunk,  for  to  do  so  entails  the  destruction  of  a 
whole  tree,  which  is  avoided  by  taking  a section  of  a large  branch 
of  an  old  tree.  The  name  of  the  tree  from  which  the  specimen  is 
taken  should  be  plainly  written  on  the  wood  with  a pencil  before 
leaving  the  spot  where  it  is  obtained.  The  rough  blocks  of  wood 
thus  labeled  should  then  be  put  away  and  allowed  to  become  thor- 
oughly seasoned  before  anything  further  is  done  with  them.  Heavy 
paper  glued  over  the  ends  of  the  block  will  lessen  the  checking 
which  is  likely  to  occur  while  the  wood  is  drying. 

PREPARING  AND  MOUNTING  WOOD  SPECIMENS. 

When  the  blocks  of  wood  have  become  thoroughly  seasoned  they 
may  be  finished  off  in  any  shape  or  manner  that  may  be  desired. 
Perhaps  the  best  way  is  to  split  off  one  side  of  the  block  to  a depth 
equal  to  about  one-third  of  its  diameter,  making  a flat  surface  at 
right  angles  to  the  radius,  thus  showing  the  grain  of  the  wood.  One 
end  of  the  block  may  then  be  cut  squarely  across  and  the  other 
may  be  sloped  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  from  the  bark-covered  sur- 
face out  to  the  flat  face  (fig.  12).  In  the  square-cut  end  a small 
screw  eye  may  be  inserted  and  the  block  may  then  be  hung,  with  the 
others  similarly  prepared,  on  nails  or  hooks  in  a strip  of  molding  on 
the  wall  or  in  a cabinet.  Wood  specimens  prepared  in  this  way  can 
be  taken  down  for  examination,  and  may  be  conveniently  packed 
when  it  is  desired  to  move  them  from  place  to  place.  A label  bear- 


COLLECTION^  OP  PLANT  MATERIAL  FOR  STUDY, 


19 


ing  the  scientific  name  and  the  common  name  of  the  species,  the 
date  and  place  of  collection,  and  other  data  should  be  attached  to 
each  specimen. 

Another  method  of  mounting  wood  specimens  is  shown  in  figure  13. 
In  this  case,  both  ends  of  the  blocks  are  cut  squarely  across  and  a 
piece  is  split  off  one  side  so  as  to  show  the  grain  of  the  wood.  The 


Fig.  12.— Wood  specimens  prepared  for  study. 

blocks  are  then  placed  in  racks,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  and  are 
fastened  in  place  by  small  nails  driven  into  the  tops  and  bottoms 
through  the  boards  of  the  rack. 

These  mounting  racks  are  made  of  one-half  inch  materials,  as  wide 
as  the  specimen  blocks  are  thick.  The  end  uprights  are  cut  so  that 
one  rack  may  be  placed  upon  another,  leaving  spaces  between  in 


20 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  58G. 


which  may  he  placed  specimens  of  the  fruit  of  each  species  of  tree 
represented  by  the  wood  specimens,  if  so  desired  (fig.  13). 

In  preparing  the  wood  specimens  it  is  a good  plan  to  smooth  off 
the  split  or  sawed  surfaces  by  scraping  them  with  the  sharp  edge  of 


Fig.  13.— Method  of  mounting  wood  specimens  in  racks. 


a piece  of  glass,  then  sandpapering  them  well.  An  application  of 
linseed  oil  will  help  to  prevent  possible  cracking  of  the  wood,  and 
will  also  bring  out  the  colors  and  grain  of  the  wood  more  clearly.  A 
coat  of  varnish  may  be  applied  if  desired  to  give  the  specimens  a 
still  more  “finished’’  appearance. 


COLLECTION  OF  PLANT  MATERIAL  FOR  STUDV. 


21 


COLLECTION  OF  FUNGI,  LICHENS,  AND  MOSSES. 

WHAT  FUNGI  TO  COLLECT. 

There  are  two  important  groups  of  fungi  of  which  specimens  should 
be  collected  for  study  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  agriculture. 
The  first  of  these  are  what  are  known  as  parastite^^f . Tlieso  fungi 
secure  their  sustenance  from  a living  “host/'  and  are  therefore 
injurious  to  the  plants  upon  which  they  draw  for  a livelihood.  Ex- 
amples of  these  fungus  parasites  are  the  rusts,  smuts,  and  mildews. 
The  second  form  of  fungus  growth  which  should  be  studied  is  the 
sapro'phyte.  These  fungi  live  u])on  dead  or  decaying  organic  matter 


Fig.  14.— How  a bracket  fungus  should  be  cut  from  the  tree. 

and  may  be  beneficial  to  the  growth  of  other  plants.  Examples  of 
the  saprophytes  are  the  mushrooms,  toadstools,  and  the  woody 
“brackets"  found  growing  on  the  sides  of  decaying  logs. 

METHODS  OF  COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  FUNGI. 

Specimens  of  the  large  woody  fungi,  such  as  the  “brackets"  wliich 
grow  on  the  decaying  wood  of  diseased  trees,  may  be  safely  kept  for 
a considerable  time  without  any  special  protective  measures,  simply 
by  drying  them  thoroughly  and  placing  them  in  cardboard  boxes 
properly  labeled  and  filed.  In  collecting  fungi  such  as  these,  it  is 
best  to  secure  with  the  specimen  a section  of  the  wood  or  other  ma- 
terial to  which  the  fungus  is  attached,  in  order  to  show  the  relation- 
ship which  it  sustains  to  the  fungus  (fig.  14). 


T«  |o  V » c.  w 


22 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  58G. 


Fig,  15.— Diseased  heads  of  oats  mounted  under  glass  on  cotton. 


COLLECTION  OF  PLANT  MATERIAL  FOR  STUDY. 


23 


The  dillieultics  in  the  way  of  collecting  the  moist  and  lleshy  fnnjjji 
are  much  greater.  Some  of  these  species  are  gelatinous,  while  others 
break  down  into  jelly-like  substances  in  a tew  hours,  and  it  will  be 
found,  in  many  cases,  impossible  to  preserve  good  herbarium  speci- 
mens. A few  of  the  more  leathery  forms  may  bo  preserved  in  fairly 
good,  though  shrunken  state,  by  drying  them  rapidly,  either  by  ex- 
posure to  the  sun  or  by  artificial  heat. 

Some  of  the  parasitic  fungi,  such  as  those  found  upon  the  loaves  of 
plants,  may  be  preserved  by  pressing  and  drying  the  leaves  which 
form  the  ‘4iosts’’  in  the  manner  described  for  the  preservation  of 


Fig.  16.— Method  of  mounting  lichens  under  glass. 


plant  specimens.  (See  p.  4.)  The  collector  should  be  careful,  in 
such  cases,  to  identify  properly  not  only  the  parasitic  fungus  but 
also  the  host.  If  the  fungus  appears  on  the  twigs  as  well  as  the 
leaves,  specimens  of  both  should  be  obtained.  These  forms  can  then 
be  mounted  and  labeled  on  ordinary  herbarium  sheets,  just  as  in  the 
case  of  flowering  plants. 

The  grain  rusts  and  smuts  are  among  the  forms  of  fungi  which  it 
is  most  important  that  the  student  of  agriculture  should  study.  A 
good  plan  for  mounting  these  specimens  is  to  collect  samples  of  the 
plant,  showing  the  diseased  condition,  and  mount  them  in  a glass- 
covered  box  on  cotton  in  the  manner  described  on  page  6 (fig.  15). 


24 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  586. 


All  of  the  soft,  fleshy  fungi,  such  as  the  mushrooms,  may  Ix^  pre- 
served in  liquids  and  kept  in  closed  jars  or  bottles.  A good  formula 
for  a preservative  solution  is  as  follows:  Alcohol,  1 part;  formalin,  1 
part;  distilled  water,  15  to  20  parts. 

COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  LICHENS  AND  MOSSES. 

The  mosses  and  lichens  are  among  the  forms  of  plant  life  least 
known  to  children,  as  a rule,  but  some  of  the  more  common  forms 
can  be  easily  collected  and  mounted.  The  pads  of  mosses  may  be 
taken  up  with  a sharp  spade  or  knife,  and  should  be  dried  thoroughly 
before  mounting.  The  lichens,  which  will  be  found  growing  on  tree 
trunks  and  exposed  rocks,  generally  may  be  removed  readily  with  a 
knife,  and  should  also  be  dried. 

A good  way  to  mount  specimens  of  this  sort  is  as  follows:  Secun 
two  small  plates  of  glass  of  any  size  desired,  such  as  discarded  pho- 
tographic plates  which  have  been  thoroughly  cleaned.  Fasten  the 
specimen,  face  up,  to  one  of  these  glass  plates  by  means  of  a little 
glue.  Upon  this  glass  plate,  around  the  edges,  run  a strip  of  wood 
or  heavy  cardboard,  so  as  to  make  a sort  of  box  deep  enough  to  hole 
the  specimen,  gluing  the  lower  edge  of  this  strip  to  the  glass  on  whicl 
the  specimen  is  fastened.  Then  cover  the  upper  edge  of  the  strij 
with  glue  and  lay  the  other  glass  upon  it,  thus  forming  a closed  boA 
or  case,  its  two  sides  being  of  glass.  Now,  bind  the  edges  of  this  box 
with  passe-partout  binding  paper  (fig.  16).  When  specimens  arc 
mounted  in  this  way  it  is  possible  to  examine  both  their  upper  and 
lower  surfaces,  and  the  mount  will  last  for  3mars  if  carefully  handled. 

o 


WASHINGTON  : GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


CONOMIC  VALUE  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  SKUNKS. 


By  1).  p].  Lantz,  Assistant  Biologist. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Jore  than  a dozen  States  have  laws  protecting  skunks  by  a close 
invson.  These  laws  were  passed  in  response  to  the  wishes  of  farmers 
^,,•60  recognize  the  usefulness  of  these  animals  in  destroying  noxious 
jjf)  ects  and  to  the  demands  of  persons  interested  in  conserving  the 
resources  of  the  country.  A fuller  understanding  of  the  eco- 
nic  value  of  these  creatures  would  no  doubt  result  in  protective 
asures  in  all  the  States. 

Several  causes  have  contributed  to  the  ])resent  scarcity  of  fur 
3n  I mals.  The  increased  demand  for  furs  and  their  consequent  high 
^r.fces  have  led  to  close  trapping;  but  the  extension  of  farming, 
reclamation  of  swamps,  and  the  thinning  out  of  forests  have,  by 
tricting  the  range  of  the  fur  bearers,  effected  what  hunting  and 
Trapping  alone  could  not  have  accomplished.  The  time  is  near  at 
/land  when  the  supply  of  pelts  will  be  so  far  short  of  the  demand  that 
urther  marked  advance  in  prices  will  follow.  Its  effect  on  the 
tv/'d  life  of  forests  and  streams  can  readily  be  foreseen,  and  the 
i'  y iblem  of  conserving  the  remnant  of  the  fur  supply  and  supple- 
/T^enting  it  from  other  sources  becomes  one  of  vital  importance. 

The  three  fur  animals  still  fairly  abundant  in  the  United  States 
vr  the  muskrat,  the  mink,  and  the  skunk.  Of  these  the  muskrat  is 
^^st  likely  to  retain  its  numbers,  since  it  multiplies  rapidly  and, 
^'operly  protected,  is  in  no  danger  of  extinction  except  where  swamps 
drained  for  agriculture.  The  mink  breeds  but  once  a year,  and 
5e  trapping  has  already  made  it  scarce  over  wide  areas.  Its 
cnoice  of  banks  of  streams  and  marsh  lands  as  a habitat  aids  in  its 
Cch^servation,  but  unless  given  more  adequate  protection  it  can  not 
Ic  rg  sur\dve  the  high  premium  on  its  pelt.  The  skunk,  although  not 
> in  danger  of  extinction,  is  likely  soon  to  be  even  more  closely 
pped,  as  its  pelt  has  great  intrinsic  value  and  the  demand  for  it  lias 

)TE.— This  bulletin  discusses  the  value  of  skunks  to  agriculture,  as  destroyers  of  rodents  and  injurious 
as,  their  value  as  fur  bearers,  and  the  possibilities  of  raising  them  for  their  fur. 

38780°— 14—  1 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  587. 


not  yet  fully  developed.  Within  a few  years  the  prices  of  tliis  fur 
will  probably  be  more  than  doubled. 

The  three  fur  animals  named  are  economically  the  most  important 
ones,  because  each  is  widely  distributed  and  adapted  to  a variety  of 
climatic  conditions.  If,  as  is  believed,  they  can  be  domesticated  or 
successfully  reared  in  captivity,  their  breeding  may  become  a means 


Fig.  1.— Range  of  common  skunk  ( Mephitis). 

of  profit  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  skunk,  especially, 
presents  possibilities  of  widely  extended  usefulness  in  domestication. 

KINDS  OF  SKUNKS. 

The  common  large  skunks^  are  restricted  wholly  to  North  America. 
Tliey  range  northward  to  Nova  Scotia,  the  Hudson  Bay  country,  and 
British  Columbia;  and  southward  through  the  greater  part  of  Mexico, 
including  part  of  Lower  California,  to  Guatemala  (fig.  1).  Tire  num- 
ber of  species  recognized  is  9,  with  8 subspecies,  or  geographic  races. 


1 Genus  Mephitis. 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  SKUNKS. 


3 


Fifteen  of  the  forms  occur  within  the  United  States.  As  these 
species  and  races  are  not  separately  recognized  in  the  fur  trade,  they 
will  not  be  so  considered  here.  In  general,  the  more  northern  forms 
have  the  finer  fur;  but  in  the  fur  trade  the  pelts  are  graded  according 
to  the  amount  of  white  in  the  pelage.  In  the  best  grade.  No.  1,  are 
placed  those  in  which  there  is  no  white  or  in  which  the  white  areas  do 
not  extend  much  beyond  the  head  and  neck  of  the  animal.  No.  2 


Fig.  2.— The  fom-  grades  of  skimk  fui’. 

skins,  or  ‘^short  stri})e,”  are  those  in  which  the  white  area  does  not 
extend  beyond  the  middle  of  the  body.  No.  3 skins  have  long  nar- 
row stripes,  while  No.  4 are  broad-striped  (fig.  2).  The  skins  are 
further  graded  in  price  according  to  the  locality  from  which  they 
were  obtained.  Northern  skins  are  more  valuable  because  the 
pelage  is  finer,  and  the  black  color  more  intense  than  those  from 
southern  localities. 


4 


farmers'  bulletin  587. 


The  four  grades  of  skunk  fur  are  due  to  individual  variation  in 
markings,  and  none  of  them  is  entirely  characteristic  of  any  particu- 
lar species.  An  apparent  exception  may  be  found  in  the  plains 
skunk  ^ and  its  races.  Most  of  these  are  characterized  by  long  nar- 
row stripes,  but  because  of  their  extra  size  they  are  more  valuable 
than  ordinary  No.  3 skins. 

A‘  skunk  belonging  mainly  to  Central  and  South  America  ^ differs 
from  the  common  skunks  of  the  United  States  in  having  a relatively 
shorter  tail  and  the  back  broadly  marked  with  white  from  the  crown 
of  the  head  to  the  end  of  the  tail.  Three  forms  are  found  within  the 


Fig.  3.— Range  of  spotted  skunks  (Spilogale)  north  of  Mexico. 


United  States  as  far  north  as  Texas  and  Arizona.  Their  skins  grade 
as  broad-striped  (No.  4),  and  as  the  pelts  are  heavy  and  much  less 
densely  furred  than  those  of  the  more  northern  skunks,  they  command 
very  low  prices. 

The  distribution  of  little  spotted  skunks  ^ is  more  restricted  than 
that  of  the  others.  Wliile  found  somewhat  farther  south  in  Central 
America  than  the  common  large  skunks,  they  do  not  range  so  far 
northward  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Near  the  Atlantic  coast  they  are 
unknown  north  of  Georgia,  but  in  the  Alleghenies  their  northern 
limit  is  apparently  in  northern  Virginia.  In  the  interior  they  reach 
southern  Minnesota,  central  Wyoming,  southern  Idaho,  and  south- 


1 MephUis  tnesomelas. 


2 Cenus  Conepatus, 


3 Genus  Spilogale. 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OP  NORTH  AMERICAN  SKUNKS. 


5 


eastern  Washington.  On  the  coast  they  are  foniul  from  southern 
British  Columi)ia  to  Lower  California  (lig.  3). 

Fourteen  species  and  six  races  of  little  spotted  skunks  are  known, 
13  of  the  20  forms  occurring  within  the  United  States.  These  ani- 
mals are  considerably  smaller  than  the  other  skunks.  The  total 
lengths  of  species  in  the  United  States  vary  in  average  from  320  to 
560  millimeters  (12.6  to  22.4  inches).  The  pygmy  spotted  skunk  of 
Mexico  is  the  smallest  skunk  known,  the  only  specimen  in  the  col- 
lection of  the  Biological  Survey  measuring  but  9.4  inches  in  total 
length. 

Spotted  skunks,  like  the  common  large  skunks,  vary  much  in 
the  amount  of  white  in  the  fur  as  well  as  in  the  pattern  of  the  spots 
or  short  stripes.  The  skin  is  strong  and  the  pelage  good  in  the  more 
northern  forms,  but  because  of  the  small  size  and  many  white  spots 
the  fur  is  not  very  valuable.  In  the  fur  trade  the  skins  are  known 
as  civet,”  and,  dressed  in  the  natural  color,  they  are  now  much  in 
vogue  for  garments. 

GENERAL  HABITS  OF  SKUNKS. 

Skunks  are  mainly  terrestnal.  The  little  spotted  skunks  occa- 
sionally voluntarily  climb  trees  in  search  of  food,  but  the  larger 
forms  apparently  do  not  climb  unless  driven  to  do  so.  None  of  the 
skunks  swim  unless  forced  into  deep  water,  but  all  are  fond  of  bathing 
in  shallow  ponds  or  streams.  They  have  plantigrade  feet  and  well- 
developed  claws,  especially  in  front.  The  white-backed  skunks  of 
Central  and  South  America  are  more  given  to  digging  than  the  others, 
and  in  general  outline,  shape  of  nose,  and  strong  development  of 
claws,  they  much  resemble  badgers,  the  only  other  group  of  the 
musteline  family  that  have  the  feet  better  adapted  for  digging. 

While  skunks  often  dig  dens  in  ordinary  soils,  they  much 
prefer  to  use  natural  cavities  in  rocks  or  burrows  dug  by  other 
animals,  as  the  fox,  badger,  and  woodchuck.  They  are  said  some- 
times to  attack  and  kill  the  woodchuck  before  taking  its  burrow. 
Fallen  logs,  recesses  under  stone  walls  or  fences,  and  cavities  under 
tree  roots  furnish  the  skunk  convenient  retreats.  If  the  floor  of  a 
building  is  near  the  ground,  the  space  below  is  often  used  by  the 
animals.  Also,  they  nest  under  well  covers,  board  walks,  hay  scales, 
and  stacks,  as  well  as  in  culverts,  covered  drains,  abandoned  cellars, 
and  caves  for  storing  vegetables.  ^ In  winter  the  warmth  of  the 
floors  of  occupied  dwellings  or  country  schoolhouses  seems  to  be 
especially  attractive  to  them;  and  the  animals  often  take  up  their 
abode  in  carelessly  filled  trenches  conveying  steam  pipes  from  boilers 
to  distant  buildings,  no  doubt  attracted  by  the  warmth.jJ 

When  skunks  dig  their  own  dens  the  burrows  are  seldom  very  long 
or  deep.  They  go  down  below  the  ordinary  frost  line,  and  after  a 


6 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  587. 


short  lateral  gallery,  end  in  a rounded  chamber  containing  the  nest, 
a bed  of  leaves  or  dried  grasses.  Occasionally  there  are  two  entrances 
to  a den. 

In  northern  latitudes  skunks  lie  housed  in  their  dens  during  the 
coldest  part  of  winter,  but  in  mild  weather  they  move  about  freely 
in  search  of  food.  Usually  a considerable  number  occupy  the  same 
den,  possibly  members  of  a single  family  of  the  preceding  summer; 
but  sometimes  the  number  seems  too  great  to  be  only  one  family. 
As  many  as  20  have  been  captured  at  one  time  from  a single  den  in 
winter.^  When  thus  disturbed  skunks  are  found  lively  enough  to 
prove  that  hibernation  is  not  complete.  As  spring  approaches  the 
animals  mate,  and  the  pairs  betake  themselves  to  separate  establish- 
ments. In  the  South  this  gregarious  habit  is  not  so  marked,  although 
the  young  usually  remain  with  the  mother  until  mating  time  in  late 
winter. 

Skunks  are  mainly  nocturnal,  but  when  not  harassed  by  enemies 
they  often  hunt  in  broad  daylight.  They  usually  come  out  about 
sunset  and  spend  the  summer  twilight  in  catching  grasshoppers  and 
beetles  by  springing  upon  them  with  the  fore  feet  as  the  insects  rise 
from  the  ground  in  flight.  After  dark  the  skunk  depends  upon  its 
senses  of  smell  and  hearing  to  locate  its  prey.  It  digs  many  beetles 
and  their  larvae  from  the  ground,  leaving  the  surface  thickly  pitted 
with  small  conical  holes  where  the  insects  were  obtained. 

SCENT  GLANDS. 

Skunks,  in  common  with  other  members  of  the  musteline  family, 
have  glands  which  secrete  an  extremely  nauseous  fluid.  These  con- 
sist of  two  oval  sacs,  located  just  beneath  the  skin  below  the  base  of 
the  tail,  one  on  each  side;  they  are  covered  by  muscular  envelopes 
and  open  to  the  surface  through  ducts,  one  leading  from  each  sac. 

When  the  animal  is  on  the  defensive  it  elevates  its  tail  and  by  con- 
tracting the  muscles  about  the  glands  ejects  the  fluid  through  the 
ducts  in  two  tiny  streams  of  spray A large,  vigorous  animal  has 
been  known  to  throw  the  fluid  nearly  a rod,  but  the  ordinary  distance 
is  from  6 to  10  feet^  The  liquid  is  sufficiently  acrid  to  cause  nausea, 
and,  if  it  strikes  the  eyes,  to  produce  temporary  blindness.  Skunks 
use  this  peculiar  and  effective  means  of  defense  only  when  attacked 
or  badly  frightened. 

The  persistence  of  skunk  odor  in  anything  touched  by  the  fluid 
is  remarkable.  Clothing  after  contact  with  it  is  sometimes  entirely 
ruined.  Washing  in  chloride  of  lime  or  gasoline  will  remove  the 
odor  from  one’s  hands,  but  chloride  of  lime  will  spoil  the  colors  of 
most  fabrics.  Probably  the  best  plan  for  removing  the  odor  from 
garments  is  to  wash  them  in  gasoline  or  benzine  and  then  to  expose 


Forest  and  Stream,  XII,  1879,  p.  365. 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  SKUNKS. 


1 


them  to  the  action  of  sun  and  wind;  another  is  to  bury  the  garment 
for  several  days  in  moist  soil;  still  another,  to  immerse  it  for  a time 
in  flowing  water. 

BREEDING  HABITS. 

Skunks  breed  usually  but  once  a year.  Tlie  larger  skunks  mate 
early  in  spring  (February  and  March)  and  the  young,  numbering 
from  6 to  12  in  a litter,  are  born  in  May.  They  are  blind  and  nearly 
haudess  at  birth  and  do  not  open  their  eyes  until  about  three  or  four 
weeks  old.  Soon  after  this  they  begin  to  follow  the  mother  about 
and  continue  with  her  until  almost  fully  grown.  They  are  mature 
when  about  six  months  old  and  breed  the  following  spring. 

The  breeding  habits  of  little  spotted  skunks  differ  but  little  from 
those  of  the  larger  animals.  They  mate  a little  later  in  the  spring 
and  the  litters  seldom  exceed  six  in  number.  On  July  10,  1905,  at 
Apache,  Okla.,  the  writer  found  a litter  of  six  young  with  eyes  not 
yet  open.  They  were  well  covered  with  soft  hairs  and  had  the  char- 
acteristic markings  of  adult  animals. 

FOOD  OF  SKUNKS. 

The  belief  that  skunks  feed  mainly  upon  birds  and  birds'  eggs  is  so 
general  that  statements  to  the  contrary  are  often  challenged.  While 
the  animals  occasionally  eat  wild  birds  and  poultry,  the  evidence 
furnished  by  stomach  examinations  is  overwhelmingly  favorable  to 
skunks,  and  proves  that  on  the  whole  they  are  beneficial.  Scien- 
tific observers  since  the  days  of  Audubon  have  nearly  ail  testified  to 
the  usefulness  of  these  animals,  but  popular  prejudices  are  hard  to 
overcome. 

The  Biological  Survey  has  records  of  the  contents  of  62  skunk 
stomachs  examined  by  its  field  men.  Of  these  stomachs,  37  were  of 
common  skunks,  9 of  white-backed  skunks,  and  16  of  little  spotted 
skunks.  As  the  food  of  these  differs  but  slightly,  they  may  be 
treated  together. 

Grasshoppers  and  crickets  formed  a large  percentage  of  the  food 
of  nearly  half  the  skunks  examined.  Beetles  and  their  larvse  formed 
the  most  important  item  of  food,  being  found  in  nearly  two-thirds  of 
the  stomachs  and  in  many  instances  being  the  sole  diet.  Fifteen 
animals  had  eaten  injurious  rodents,  such  as  mice,  rats,  ground 
squirrels,  and  pocket  gophers,  while  3 had  eaten  carrion;  3 had 
taken  lizards  or  salamanders;  3,  crawfish;  2,  fungi;  2,  earthworms; 
and  6,  berries  or  other  fruit.  In  one  stomach  the  feathers  of  a bird 
were  found,  and  in  another,  that  of  an  animal  trapped  in  a henhouse, 
parts  of  a domestic  fowl.  Two  stomachs  contained  centipedes;  1, 
sawflies;  1,  cicadas  only,  and  another  the  pulpy  stems  of  a succulent 
plant. 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  587. 


The  62  stomachs  were  of  animals  captured  in  every  month  of  the 
year.  While  the  number  for  some  months  is  very  small,  analysis  of 
results  proves  that  skunks  ordinarily  eat  food  that  is  abundant  and 
easily  obtained.  When  insects  are  plentiful,  these  constitute  the 
whole  diet;  when  they  are  scarce,  the  food  is  of  greater  variety.  Thus 
skunks  taken  from  January  to  March  had  eaten  small  mammals,  liz- 
ards,' crawfish,  earthworms,  fungi,  and  a few  beetles.  The  diet  in 
April  and  May  was  mainly  beetles,  a small  mammal  being  the  only 
exception.  In  June,  in  every  instance,  there  was  an  unmixed  diet 
either  of  beetles,  grasshoppers,  or  cicadas.  Eight  of  14  skunks  taken 
in  July  had  eaten  insects  exclusively.  In  August  and  September 
grasshoppers  formed  the  chief  diet,  but  a few  beetles  also  were  found. 
For  the  last  three  months  of  the  year  the  insect  diet  was  varied  with 
other  animal  food,  while  berries  were  prominent  in  a few  cases. 

Insects  eaten  by  the  skunk  seem  to  be  mostly  of  injurious  kinds, 

• and  the  usefulness  of  this  animal  is  more  apparent  when  there  is  an 
invasion  of  large  numbers  of  some  insect  pest,  as  grasshoppers, 
crickets,  cicadas,  army  worms,  or  the  like.  An  instance  of  this  was 
observed  in  1913  by  E.  R.  Kalmbach,  of  this  bureau,  in  northern 
New  Mexico  during  an  invasion  of  the  range  caterpillar.  Skunks 
were  abundant,  and  investigation  showed  that  from  60  to  95  per  cent 
of  their  food  was  made  up  of  the  pupal  cases  of  these  insects.  On 
large  areas  skunks  had  taken  the  majority  of  the  pupae. 

SKUNKS  AND  POULTRY. 

The  chief  indictment  against  the  skunk  is  that  it  destroys  poultry, 
and  a few  cases  of  serious  losses  due  to  the  animal  are  reported.  In 
many  instances  of  alleged  depredations  by  skunks,  it  is  probable  that 
minks  or  weasels  were  the  actual  culprits,  and  that  skunks  merely 
shared  in  the  plunder  by  eating  the  dead  poultry.  When  a farmer 
loses  fowls  and  does  not  see  the  animal  killing  them  he  is  often 
likely  to  mistake  its  identity.  The  common  skunk  can  not  climb 
to  a roost,  and  would  kill  only  birds  found  on  the  ground.  Minks 
and  weasels  are  expert  climbers  and  are  far  more  bloodthirsty. 
It  is  characteristic  of  the  weasel  to  kiU  many  victims  when  they 
are  within  reach.  It  makes  a small  but  deep  incision  in  the 
neck  or  under  the  wing  of  a fowl  and  takes  the  blood  as  long  as 
it  flows  freely.  It  then  attacks  and  kills  another  and  another 
victim,  until  satisfied.  Minks  also  kill  a number  of  chickens  at  one 
visit  to  the  coop,  eating  only  the  heads.  A skunk,  on  the  contrary, 
usually  takes  only  one  fowl  at  a time  and  eats  of  it  until  satisfied. 
Having  once,  however,  acquired  a taste  for  chicken,  a skunk  will 
return  to  the  poultry  yard  night  after  night  for  a fresh  victim. 

A skunk  making  its  home  under  sheds  and  other  buddings  roams 
about  them  at  night  in  search  of  food,  chiefly  rats,  mice,  and  insects. 
That  it  should  occasionally  learn  to  take  chickens  and  eggs  is  not 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  NOETH  AMERICAN  SKUNKS. 


9 


surprising,  but  this  haj)pens  far  less  frequently  than  might  be  expected. 
It  is  a habit  learned  by  very  few  mdividuals  and  not  a characteristic 
of  skunks  as  a family.  The  writer  visited  a skunk  yard  in  Ohio  where 
chicks  about  the  size  of  quail  were  eating  from  the  same  pans  with 
the  skunks.  The  owner  stated  that  this  occurred  daily  and  that 
the  skunks  had  never  molested  the  chicks.  Much  testimony  could 
be  cited  showmg  that  skunks  frequently  feed  with  poultry  in  hen- 
houses without  molesting  the  fowls.  Of  course,  the  individual  skunk 
that  learns  to  kill  and  eat  chickens  should  be  destroyed. 

SKUNKS  AND  GAME. 

Persons  interested  in  the  preservation  .of  game  often  denounce  the 
skunk,  asserting  that  it  destroys  pheasants,  quail,  grouse,  and  other 
game;  and  sportsmen’s  clubs  usually  encourage  the  destruction  of 
skunks,  classing  them  with  foxes,  minks,  and  weasels  as  enemies 
of  game.  Sometimes  side  hunts  are  arranged  for  the  destruction  of 

vermin,”  and  in  some  places  bounties  are  paid  for  killing  these 
animals.  So  far  as  skunks  are  concerned,  there  is  little  evidence  that 
they  often  disturb  game. 

The  late  Byron  Andrews,  of  Erwin,  S.  Dak.,  informed  the  writer 
that  he  once  found  a pinnated-grouse  nest  containing  eggs  about  to 
hatch  less  than  4 rods  from  a den  which  had  long  been  in  use  by 
skunks.  Mr.  Andrews  argued  that  the  skunks  surely  would  have 
destroyed  this  nest  had  they  been  fond  of  eggs. 

The  writer  has  repeatedly  known  quails  to  nest  and  hatch  out 
broods  within  a few  rods  of  a skunk  den.  A few  eggs  from  one  nest 
were  eaten  by  crows,  but  a large  clutch  was  left  to  hatch.  The  truth 
is  that  at  the  season  when  the  native  game  birds  are  nesting  skunks 
have  abundant  insect  food,  and  by  the  time  this  food  fails  the  birds 
are  strong  of  wing  and  seldom  fall  a prey  to  this  mammal. 

SKUNKS  AND  BEES. 

The  destruction  of  yellow  jackets  and  bumblebees  by  skunks  has 
often  been  noted.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  juicy  larvae  of 
these  insects  are  most  appreciated,  but  the  adults  also  are  eaten,  and 
probably  the  honey  stored  by  the  bumblebees. 

Complaints  of  the  destruction  of  bees  in  their  hives  by  skunks  have 
been  recorded.  The  skunk  approaches  the  apiary  cautiously  and 
scratches  on  the  outside  of  a hive  until  the  bees  rush  from  the  entrance 
to  repel  the  intruder.  The  skunk  shows  much  skill  in  capturing  the 
insects  and  in  dislodging  them  from  his  long  hair,  where  many  cling. 
He  pays  little  attention  to  their  stings.  One  or  two  visits  to  a hive 
are  said  to  suffice  nearly  to  destroy  the  colony.  The  possibility  of 
skunks  attacking  an  apiary  may  be  entirely  avoided  by  placing  the 
hives  upon  a high  bench. 

38780°— 14 2 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  587. 


BENEFICIAL  HABITS  OF  SKUNKS. 

The  skunk  feeds  mainly  upon  insects,  but  its  economic  status  can 
not  be  fixed  by  this  habit  alone.  This  must  rest  on  the  character  of 
the  insects  eaten.  Not  all  insects  are  injurious,  as  certain  kinds 
themselves  feed  upon  injurious  species  and  are  therefore  highly  bene- 
ficial. The  skunk  is  one  of  the  most  important  mammals  in  its  choice 
of  harmful  insects  for  its  diet. 

SKUNKS  AND  ARMY  WORMS. 

The  skunk  is  the  best-known  mammal  enemy  of  army  worms. 
The  common  army  worm,  the  wheat-head  army  worm,  and  the  fall 
army  worm  are  all  very  destuctive  to  small  grains,  corn,  and  grasses, 
and  their  invasions  entail  heavy  losses  among  farmers.  The  good 
work  of  skunks  in  destroying  army  worms  has  frequently  been  noticed. 
In  a report  on  this  insect  in  Pennsylvania,  published  in  1896,  Dr. 
B.  H.  Warren  brought  forward  much  testimony  of  farmers  as  to  the 
usefulness  of  skunks  in  the  work  of  extermination.^  Also,  he  had 
examined  three  skunk  stomachs  which  contained  chiefly  beetles  and 
army  worms.  Prof.  Lugger  of  Minnesota  ^ also  mentioned  the 
skunk  as  one  of  the  principal  enemies  of  the  army  worm  in  that 
State. 

SKUNKS  AND  TOBACCO  WORMS. 

Skunks  are  fond  of  the  insects  known  as  tobacco  worms.  Two 
species  of  these  larvae  very  destructive  to  tobacco  and  tomato  plants 
are  the  southern  tobacco  worm  and  the  northern  tobacco  worm. 
Both  species  occur  over  wide  areas  in  the  United  States,  and  in  sec- 
tions where  no  tobacco  is  grown  they  feed  upon  tomato  and  potato 
plants.  While  the  worms  are  active  skunks  gather  them  from  the 
plants,  and  when  the  worms  go  into  the  ground  in  the  latter  part  of 
summer,  the  animals  dig  out  pupae  in  great  numbers.  The  evidence 
of  this  is  found  in  numerous  small  pits  bearing  marks  of  the  skunks' 
claws.  The  mature  moths,  as  well  as  the  larvae  and  pupae,  are  eaten 
by  skunks. 

SKUNKS  AND  WHITE  GRUBS. 

The  larvae  of  scarabaeid  beetles  are  known  generally  as  white  grubs, 
and  among  them  number  some  very  destructive  insects.  The 
larvae  of  ^‘June  bugs,"  or  ^^May  beetles,"  infest  grasslands  and  feed 
upon  the  roots  of  grasses  and  other  plants.  They  are  among  the 
chief  enemies  of  the  strawberry,  and  also  seriously  affect  the  potato, 
gnawing  the  tubers  and  often  making  large  portions  of  the  crop  unfit 
for  sale. 

Skunks  are  very  fond  of  these  wliite  grubs  and  spend  much  time 
digging  for  them.  Strawberry  growers  recognize  the  usefulness  of 


1 Annual  Report  of  Pennsylvania  State  College,  1896,  pp.  164-220. 

2 Bull.  48,  Minn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  1896,  p.  46. 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  SKUNKS.  11 

this  animal  and  generally  regard  it  with  favor,  although  occasionally 
in  its  eager  search  for  grubs  it  may  uproot  a plant,  or  do  slight  damage 
by  eating  a few  berries.  As  white  grubs  commonly  remain  in  the 
ground  three  years  before  emerging  as  mature  beetles,  each  in  tliis 
time  can  destroy  much  vegetation.  They  are  quite  secure  from 
ordinary  enemies.  Except  the  crow,  robin,  and  a few  other  species, 
birds  find  only  those  turned  up  in  cultivation;  the  skunk,  locating 
them  by  its  sense  of  smell,  digs  them  out  of  the  ground. 

Besides  the  larvae,  skunks  eat  also  many  mature  ^^May  beetles,” 
or  ^'June  bugs.” 

SKUNKS  AND  THE  HOP  GRUB. 

Hop  growers  in  New  York,  Michigan,  and  elsewhere  have  serious 
losses  from  the  depredations  of  the  hop-plant  borer,  or  hop  grub. 
That  the  skunk  is  the  only  efficient  natural  enemy  of  this  moth  has 
been  attested  by  nearly  all  entomologists  who  have  written  about 
the  insect.  The  skunk  is  said  to  listen  at  the  base  of  the  hop  vine, 
thus  locating  the  larvae  at  work.  All  hop  growers  value  the  skunk’s 
services,  and  it  was  mainly  through  their  efforts  that  legislation 
protecting  this  animal  was  first  enacted  in  New  York. 

SKUNKS  AND  GRASSHOPPERS. 

In  July,  August,  and  September,  when  grasshoppers  are  most 
abundant,  they  constitute  the  chief  food  of  skunks,  which  consume 
enormous  quantities.  During  the  disastrous  invasions  of  the  Kocky 
Mountain  locust  in  the  plains  country  in  1873  and  1874  the  skunk  was 
reported  as  the  principal  mammal  that  destroyed  these  insects.  As 
other  species  of  grasshoppers  are  always  abundant  and  sometimes 
extremely  destructive  to  crops,  the  constant  services  of  skunks  in 
checking  their  increase  should  not  be  forgotten. 

OTHER  INSECTS  EATEN  BY  SKUNKS. 

Except  a few  H5unenoptera  and  predatory  beetles,  nearly  all  the 
insect  food  of  skunks  consists  of  kinds  injurious  to  plant  life.  Among 
them  are  cutworms,  cicadas,  crickets,  sphinx  moths,  and  a beetle 
injurious  to  sweet  potatoes  in  the  South. 

Skunks  are  among  the  few  animals  that  prey  on  the  Colorado  potato 
beetle.  Conway  McMillan  stated  that  ^Mhey  consider  the  beetle  a 
delicate  morsel  and  spend  many  a busy  evening  in  potato  patches 
catching  and  eating  the  larvae  and  the  mature  beetles.”^ 

SKUNKS  AND  SMALL  RODENTS. 

Although  other  mammals,  including  coyotes,  badgers,  foxes,  minks, 
and  weasels,  do  far  more  good  by  destroying  noxious  rodents  than  is 
generally  realized,  the  skunk  surpasses  them  all.  It  is  sufficiently 


J Report  Nebraska  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  1887,  p.  280. 


12 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  587. 


numerous  in  many  localities  to  keep  field  mice  in  check,  and  reports 
from  various  parts  of  the  country  show  that  close  trapping  of  skunks 
and  other  fur  animals  is  often  followed  by  an  increase  in  depreda- 
tions by  mice.  C.  W.  Douglas,  nurseryman,  of  Waukegan,  Ilk,  wilting 
to  the  Biological  Survey  in  1906,  attributed  the  abundance  of  meadow 
mice  in  that  vicinity  directly  to  the  scarcity  of  skunks,  weasels,  and 
other  natural  enemies. 

Besides  meadow  mice,  skunks  destroy  also  many  other  injurious 
native  rodents,  including  white-footed  mice,  pocket  mice,  jumping 
mice,  cotton  rats,  kangaroo  rats,  wood  rats,  chipmunks,  and  rabbits. 

The  skunk  is  especially  useful  in  destroying  the  rats  and  mice  that 
commonly  infest  farm  buildings.  It  makes  itself  familiar  about  the 
premises  when  these  rodents  are  abundant  and  preys  upon  them  per- 
sistently. If  not  disturbed  it  will  remain  until  all  are  destroyed. 

The  little  spotted  skunks  are  remarkably  efficient  as  destroyers  of 
rats  and  mice.  They  are  small  and  nearly  like  a weasel  in  shape;  they 
are  quick  in  their  movements,  and  can  follow  rats  and  mice  into 
smaller  crannies  than  the  ordinary  skunk  can  enter.  In  Kansas  the 
writer  once  lived  in  a house  with  cellar  openings  on  the  outside.  The 
dwelling  had  been  unoccupied  for  a year  and  during  this  time  the 
cellar  had  been  used  for  storing  com,  with  the  result  that  the  entire 
house  had  become  infested  with  rats  and  mice.  A short  time  after 
the  writer  occupied  the  house  it  was  noticed  that  a prairie  spotted 
skimk  had  taken  up  its  quarters  in  the  cellar  and  night  combats  with 
rats  were  often  heard.  The  skunk  was  frequently  seen,  but  it  was 
carefully  left  unmolested.  After  a few  weeks  the  rats  and  mice  had 
all  been  killed  or  driven  away,  and  the  skunk  then  left  the  premises. 

There  is  much  similar  testimony  to  the  usefulness  of  skunks  as  rat 
catchers.  C.  J.  Maynard  ^ says  that  the  Florida  spotted  skunks  are 
easily  domesticated,  and  they  are  frequently  used  in  houses  for  catch- 
ing mice.  Sometimes  the  animals  are  captured  and  the  scent  glands 
removed,  but  they  are  often  simply  decoyed  about  the  premises  by 
exposing  food,  when  frequently  they  take  up  their  abode  beneath 
buildings  and  become  so  tame  as  to  enter  them  in  search  of  their  prey. 

UNDESERVED  PREJUDICE  AGAINST  SKUNKS. 

Tlie  early  settlers  of  America  were  acquainted  with  the  European 
fitchet  weasel,  and  promptly  apphed  its  common  name  ‘^polecat”  to 
the  skunk  on  account  of  its  odor.  The  polecat  of  Europe  is  far  more 
destructive  to  poultry  and  game  than  are  skunks.  Its  bad  reputation 
was  transferred  with  the  name,  and  circumstances  have  been  unfavor- 
able for  a reversal  of  opinion.  They  feed  mostly  at  night  when  their 
habits  can  not  be  observed,  and  few  persons  have  undertaken  to  dis- 
sect their  stomachs.  The  public  are  extremely  slow  to  give  up  preju- 


1 Bull.  Essex  Inst.,  IV,  1872,  p.  140. 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  SKUNKS. 


13 


dices  of  long  standing,  as  those  against  hawks,  owls,  snakes,  and 
skunks ; consequently  the  usefulness  of  these  animals  has  to  be  proved 
over  and  over  before  their  needless  and  indiscriminate  slaughter  can 
be  checked  or  adequate  laws  for  their  protection  enacted. 

Change  of  opinion  about  the  value  of  skunks  to  agriculture  has  been 
very  slow.  Naturalists  have  generally  given  testimony  favorable  to 
the  animals,  but  until  recently  their  views  were  not  reflected  in  legis- 
lation. Indeed,  most  of  the  laws  for  the  protection  of  skunks  have 
been  passed  because  of  a scarcity  of  furs  and  with  the  purpose  of  con- 
serving a commercial  resource. 

PROTECTION  OF  SKUNKS. 

The  earliest  legislation  for  the  protection  of  skunks  grew  out  of  ap- 
peals from  hop  growers  in  New  York.  The  legislature  in  1893  having 
delegated  to  county  boards  of  supervisors  the  right  to  enact  local  game 
laws,  four  counties  in  1894  provided  protection  to  skunks:  Broome 
and  Chenango  Counties  made  a close  season  from  March  1 to  Novem- 
ber 1 ; Onondaga  County,  from  May  1 to  November  1 ; Oswego  County 
at  first  entirely  prohibited  the  taking  of  skunks,  except  in  a few  towns 
and  Oswego  city,  but  in  the  following  year  it  made  an  open  season  for 
skunks  from  November  1 to  January  1.  The  State  legislature  began 
providing  close  seasons  for  skunks  in  various  counties  in  1896  and 
added  others  in  succeeding  years,  until  in  1906  the  skunk  law  applied 
to  22  counties.  Later  the  close  season  for  skunks  and  other  fur  ani- 
mals was  made  uniform  for  the  entire  State.  The  open  season  is  now 
(1913)  from  November  1 to  January  31,  inclusive. 

Ohio  enacted  a law  in  1902  prohibiting  the  taking  of  skunks 
from  February  1 to  November  1,  except  when  kept  in  inclosures  for 
their  fur  or  when  doing  injury  on  the  premises  of  farmers.  In  1913 
the  season  for  taking  skunks  was  shortened  and  digging  or  smoking 
them  from  dens  or  destroying  the  dens  was  prohibited. 

In  West  Virginia  a general  law  passed  in  1903  protects  skunks 
throughout  the  year,  pro\dded  that  the  law  be  first  approved  by  a vote 
of  the  citizens  in  any  county  wishing  to  adopt  it.  Apparently  this 
law  is  entirely  inoperative,  none  of  the  counties  having  voted  on  its 
adoption. 

In  response  to  a general  request  from  dealers  in  raw  furs,  the  Michi- 
gan Legislature  of  1899  passed  a law  forbidding  the  taking  of  all  furs 
in  September  and  October.  It  was  not  until  1909,  however,  that  the 
skunk  was  specifically  named  as  a protected  fur  animal  in  that  State. 

Skunks  are  now  protected  by  close  seasons  in  13  States.  The  open 
seasons  are  as  follows: 

Maine,  November  1 to  March  1;  New  Hampshire,  October  15  to 
April  1 ; Vermont,  November  1 to  May  1 ; New  Yorlc,  November  1 to 
February  1 ; New  Jersey,  November  15  to  April  1 ; Delaware,  Decern- 


14 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  587. 


ber  1 to  March  10,  inclusive;  Ohio,  November  15  to  February  1,  inclu- 
sive; Indiana,  November  1 to  April  1 ; Illinois,  November  1 to  April  1 ; 
Michigan,  November  1 to  April  1 ; Missouri,  November  1 to  February 
1 ; Kansas,  November  15  to  March  15.  North  Carolina  has  local  laws 
protecting  skunks  in  several  counties. 

A close  season  of  about  nine  months  is  well  adapted  to  conditions 
existing  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  where  a reasonable  period  for 
fur  taking  is  desired  without  encroaching  on  the  season  of  breeding 
and  growth  of  the  animals.  In  parts  of  the  country  where  skunks 
have  been  trapped  to  excess,  a close  season  for  a few  years  would 
probably  restore  their  numbers. 

COMMERCIAL  VALUE  OF  SKUNKS. 

The  skunk  stands  second  in  importance  among  the  fur  animals  of 
the  United  States,  the  total  value  of  the  annual  catch  being  exceeded 
only  in  the  case  of  the  muskrat.  The  mink  is  third  in  value.  Most 
of  the  skunk  skins  are  marketed  in  London,  but  their  use  is  increasing 
in  the  United  States  and  a small  percentage  is  now  dressed  and  made 
up  here. 

No  complete  statistics  of  the  London  sales  of  skunk  skins  prior  to 
1858  are  available.  The  total  annual  sales  since  that  date  are  given 
in  the  following  table.  The  statement  includes  skins  of  civet  (the 
little  spotted  skunk),  although  in  recent  years  these  have  been  cata- 
logued and  sold  separately. 

Table  I. — Sale  of  skunk  furs  in  London^  1858  to  1913. 


Year. 

Number 
of  skins. 

Year. 

Number 
of  skins. 

1858  . 

18, 255 
84, 886 
148,346 
116,609 
30, 969 
94, 187 
136,361 
103,  755 
76,602 
137,407 
94, 480 
111,001 
114,665 
45, 670 
206,320 
263, 704 
191,980 
243,493 
331,914 

1877 

283, 141 
285, 103 
444, 224 
517, 191 
350, 594 
443,911 
424, 645 
596, 243 
560, 388 
489,473 
625, 802 
526, 263 
536, 864 
688, 946 
567, 398 
635, 800 
575,472 
739, 228 
542, 885 

1859 

1878 

1860 

1879 

1861 

1880 

1862 

1881 

1863 

1882 

1864... 

1883 

1865  .. 

1884 ■ 

1866.. 

1885 

1867 

1886 

1868 

1887 

1869 

1888 

1870 

1889 

1871 

1890 

1872 

1891 

1873 

1892 

1874 

1893 

1875.  . 

1894 

1876 

1895 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

1906. 

1907. 

1908. 

1909. 

1910. 

1911. 

1912. 

1913. 


Year. 


Number 
of  skins. 


796, 750 
872,326 
482, 130 
426,610 
695,686 
696,961 
973,695 
987, 550 
911,923 
952, 549 
1,225,582 
1,368,475 
1,037,641 
1,115,910 
1,282,001 
2,009,465 
1,821,485 
1,659,  773 


The  present  value  of  skunk  skins  in  the  raw-fur  market  (prices  cur- 
rent in  New  York  for  December,  1913)  are  about  as  foUows-:  No.  1, 
$2  to  $3.50;  No.  2,  $1.25  to  $2.50;  No.  3,  $0.75  to  $1.75;  No.  4,  $0.25 
to  $0.75.  These  quotations  are  much  lower  than  they  have  been  for 
several  years,  owing  to  the  very  large  offerings  in  London  in  October, 
1913.  1 1 is  no  t likely  that  such  low  prices  will  long  continue . Skunk 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  SKUNKS. 


15 


skins  are  intrinsically  of  high  value,  as  they  wear  weU  and  have  a luster 
which  makes  them  rival  Russian  sable  in  appearance. 

Skunk  fur  has  never  been  very  popular  in  America,  but  is  now  grow- 
ing in  favor.  For  many  years  almost  all  the  product  was  taken  for 
European  manufacture.  True,  a good  many  of  the  skins  came  back  as 
“black  marten,’’  and,  when  plucked,  as  “Alaska  sable,”  but  when  the 
pubhc  learned  the  true  nature  of  these  articles  the  demand  for  them 
was  not  very  great.  The  processes  of  dressing  and  deodorizing  the 
skins  are  now  much  improved,  so  that  this  fur  is  gaining  in  popularity. 
The  present  extreme  scarcity  of  Russian  sable,  resulting  from  a law 
forbidding  the  taking  of  that  fur,  favors  the  market  for  skunk. 

The  oil  of  the  skunk  is  used  in  some  parts  of  the  country  for  medi- 
cinal purposes.  It  is  popularly  believed  to  reheve  rheumatism  and 
various  affections  of  the  throat  when  apphed  externally.  There  is, 
however,  no  great  demand  for  it. 

The  flesh  of  the  skunk  is  sometimes  used  as  food.  It  was  formerly 
a common  article  of  diet  among  North  American  Indians  and  trappers. 

TRAPPING  SKUNKS. 

Trapping  is  the  best  method  of  taking  skunks  for  their  fur.  Shoot- 
ing spoils  the  pelt  and  generally  results  in  its  defilement  by  the  animal. 
A moderate  amount  of  trapping  may  be  done  each  winter  in  many 
locahties  without  seriously  affecting  the  supply  of  this  fur,  and  some- 
times without  greatly  interfering  with  the  beneficial  work  of  the  ani- 
mals against  farm  pests.  If  no  trapping  were  done  skunks  in  some 
places  might  become  noxious  because  of  their  abundance. 

Skunks,  being  neither  suspicious  nor  cunning,  are  easily  trapped. 
They  are  often  caught  in  unbaited  traps  placed  in  the  paths  they 
travel;  yet  the  head  of  a fowl,  a sparrow,  or  a dead  mouse  makes  an 
excellent  bait.  Trappers  use  a medium-sized  trap  (No.  1)  and  try  to 
take  advantage  of  the  pecuhar  habits  and  haunts  of  the  animals,  plac- 
ing the  trap  in  such  places  as  the  paths  they  travel  to  obtain  water  or 
near  the  openings  to  their  dens.  The  trap  should  be  set  lightly  (the 
trigger  filed  down  to  fit  the  notch  loosely),  and  a little  fight  trash 
(leaves  or  grass)  may  be  scattered  over  it  with  advantage.  The  bait 
may  be  placed  on  the  pan,  or  a little  beyond  the  trap,  or  between  two 
traps.  The  path  may  be  narrowed  artificially  by  setting  upright 
sticks  in  two  converging  rows  along  it  and  the  trap  set  in  the  narrow 
place. 

Skunks  when  trapped  do  not  often  discharge  their  scent  so  as  to 
defile  the  fur,  but  care  is  needed  to  remove  them  from  the  traps.  With 
caution  one  may  approach  near  enough  to  strike  the  animal  a quick 
blow  across  the  back,  paralyzing  the  hind  parts  and  preventing  the  dis- 
charge. Some  trappers  use  a wire  noose  attached  to  a pole.  The 
noose  is  cautiously  lowered  over  the  head  of  the  skunk,  and  by  a 
quick  jerk  the  animal  is  lifted  and  strangled. 


16 


FAKMERS^  BULLETIN  587. 


Many  trappers  use  a tight  box  trap  for  taking  skunks.  When  one 
is  caught  the  box  is  carefully  lifted  and  carried  to  water  deep  enough 
to  cover  it.  If  no  water  is  available  to  drown  the  animal,  it  may  be 
killed  in  the  box  by  carbon  bisulphid  or  chloroform. 

RAISING  SKUNKS  FOR  THEIR  FUR. 


T' 


J 


a 


Although  skunks  were  often  tamed  and  kept  as  pets  or  for  destroy- 
ing rats  and  mice,  no  attempt  to  raise  them  for  their  fur  seems  to  have 
been  made  until  within  the  past  30  years.  About 
1885-86  there  was  a large  foreign  demand  for 
the  pelts  and  close  trapping  had  led  to  a 
scarcity  of  black  skunks.  The  feasibility  of  de- 
veloping a strain  of  black  animals  by  selective 
breeding  came  under  consideration  and  many 
experiments  in  skunk  farming  were  undertaken. 
Falling  prices  and  other  hindrances  soon  caused 
breeders  to  abandon  their  attempts.  One  firm 
in  Pennsylvania  claimed  to  have  spent  $25,000 
in  lands  and  equipment  in  an  unsuccessful  ven- 
ture in  skunk  raising. 

The  high  prices  that  have  prevailed  in  the 
past  few  years  have  led  to  renewed  discussion 
of  the  subject  of  skunk  raising,  and  at  present 
not  a few  persons  are  endeavoring  to  produce 
this  fur  in  captivity.  While  some  breeders  have 
encountered  difiiculties,  others  have  been  quite 
successful.  On  the  whole,  there  are  excellent 
reasons  for  believing  that  a profitable  industry 
may  be  developed.  Skunks  are  less  wild  than 
most  of  the  musteline  family,  and  their  miscel- 
laneous diet  permits  a good  deal  of  latitude  in 
feeding,  whereas  the  marten  and  the  mink  re- 
feetiong;  6,surfaceof^ound;  ^ almost  exclusively  of  meat.  The 

problem  of  providing  pens  is  also  less  comph- 
cated  in  the  case  of  the  skunk.  The  odor  of  the 
skunk  may  be  entirely  disregarded;  but  if  the 
breeder  prefers  to  do  so,  he  may  remove  the  scent  glands  and  have  his 
animals  as  harmless  as  cats.  The  popular  belief  that  hydrophobia 
will  result  from  a skunk  bite  is  an  error.  There  is  no  more  danger 
from  this  source  than  there  is  in  handling  cats  or  dogs. 


Fig.  4. — Section  of  fence  for 
skurtk  enclosure,  o,  Post  7 


c,  extension  of  post  (2  x 4) 
to  support  netting  or  barbed 
wire  strands;  d,  bottom  of 
trench. 


INCLOSURES  AND  DENS. 

The  skunk  inclosure  should  occupy  a well-drained,  sandy  hillside, 
partly  shaded  by  trees,  and  partly  open  land,  with  grasses.  An  acre 
will  afford  room  for  about  50  adult  skunks.  It  is  desirable,  but 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  SKUNKS. 


17 


not  necessary,  to  Jiave  running  water  inside  the  inclosure.  A 3-foot 
fence  made  of  poultry  iietting  and  having  an  overhanging  barrier  at 
the  top  is  sufFicient  to  confine  the  annuals.  The  barrier  is  needed, 
since  the  netting  might  serve  as  a ladder  over  which  the  skunks  could 
climb.  The  netting  should  be  of  1-inch  mesh,  as  young  skunks  have 
been  known  to  escape  through  meshes  of  IJ  inches.  The  wire  should 
be  of  No.  16  gauge. 

This  low  fence,  however,  is  not  sufficient  to  keep  out  dogs  or  other 
intruders,  unless  the  overhang  is  very  wide  and  extends  on  both  sides. 
Many  breeders  prefer  a tight  fence  of  boards  or  sheet  iron  or  even  a 
stone  wall.  A 4-foot  fence  of  stout  planks  supplemented  by  a 3-foot 
netting  or  several 
strands  of  barbed 
wire  above  is  recom- 
mended, as  it  may  be 
made  proof  against 
the  entrance  of  rats, 
and  no  overhang  will 
be  needed  (fig.  4). 

To  prevent  the 
skunks  from  digging 
out  under  the  fence  it 
should  penetrate  the 
ground  to  a depth  of 
2 or  3 feet.  A layer 
of  flat  stones  along 
the  bottom  of  the 
trench  on  the  inside  is 
an  additional  precau- 
tion (flg.  5).  Turn- 
ing the  netting  in  at 
the  bottom  is  still  another  method  of  preventing  escape.  Unless  the 
soil  is  loose  skunks  do  httle  digging,  but  they  have  been  known  to  dig 
under  3-foot  walls. 

Strong  posts  of  good  lumber  are  needed  for  outside  fencing.  They 
should  be  set  at  intervals  of  about  10  feet  and  should  be  well  braced 
at  corners.  The  overhang  may  be  a wide  horizontal  board  nailed  to 
crosspieces  at  the  tops  of  the  posts,  or  it  may  be  a strip  of  wire  net- 
ting, sheet  iron,  or  sheet  tin  a foot  wide  attached  to  wooden  brackets 
or  crossbars  on  the  posts. 

The  skunk  inclosure  should  be  divided  into  smaller  yards,  the 
division  fences  being  3 or  4 feet  high  and  made  of  netting  (l^-inch 
mesh)  or  of  sheet  iron.  The  compartments  are  convenient  to  separate 
different  classes  of  animals,  as  males  or  skunks  just  weaned.  Besides 
the  general  inclosure  and  its  main  divisions  a separate  breeding  pen 
for  each  female  should  be  provided.  As  these  are  to  be  used  for  only 


Fig.  5. — Detail  of  fence  with  board  overhang,  height  6 feet,  showing 
stones  in  inside  trench  to  prevent  skunks  from  digging  out. 


18 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  587. 


two  or  three  months  at  a time,  cheap  boxes  with  wooden  floors  will 
serve  every  purpose,  but  they  must  be  dry  inside.  It  will  be  advan- 
tageous to  have  each  breeding  den  placed  within  a small  run  where 
the  young  skunks  can  exercise  after  they  are  large  enough  to  leave 
the  nest.  This  arrangement  should  entirely  remove  the  danger  of 
cannibaUsm  in  the  skunk  yard. 

The  general  skunk  inclosure  and  its  main  subdivisions  should  be 
provided  with  a sufficient  number  of  dens  to  prevent  overcrowding 
the  animals.  While  in  winter  a number  of  skunks  will  den  up  to- 
gether, they  should  not  be  compelled  to  do  so  at  other  times.  The 
dens  may  consist  of  hollow  logs,  trenches  covered  with  boards  and 
earth,  or  artificial  burrows  bored  in  a sloping  bank  by  means  of  a 
post  auger.  The  skunks  will  enlarge  these  burrows  to  suit  their 
needs.  The  chief  requirement  for  all  dens  is  that  they  shall  be  dry 
ijiside.  Contact  with  the  soil,  unless  it  is  wet,  improves  the  fur. 

FOODS  AND  FEEDING. 

Skunks  in  captivity  eat  a great  variety  of  foods,  including  meat, 
fish,  insects,  bread,  cooked  and  even  raw  vegetables,  and  ripe  fruits. 
Table  scraps  will  keep  the  animals  in  good  condition,  but  occasional 
meals  wholly  of  raw  meat  are  desirable.  The  meat  should  not  be 
putrid  nor  very  salty.  More  of  it  should  be  fed  in  the  spring,  for  it 
is  lack  of  meat  diet  that  causes  old  skunks  to  eat  the  young. 

Food  for  a large  skunk  ranch  may  often  be  procured  from  hotels 
or  restaurants,  when  usually  it  will  cost  nothing  but  the  labor  of  re- 
moving it.  Arrangements  may  also  be  made  with  butchers  for  ob- 
taining waste  meat  at  low  cost.  If  the  ranch  is  favorably  located,  a 
supplemental  diet  of  insects  wifi  be  naturally  available  within  the 
inclosure. 

Cakes  and  mush  made  from  cornmeal  and  bits  of  meat  are  excellent 
foods  for  skunks.  If  fresh  milk  is  available,  it  may  be  made  an  im- 
portant item  in  the  diet.  Cooked  green  corn  and  hominy  also  are 
recommended. 

No  more  food  should  be  given  than  will  be  eaten  clean  during  the 
night.  It  is  a mistake  to  place  a dead  animal  inside  the  inclosure  to 
provide  food  for  a long  time,  or  to  give  the  animals  occasionally  a 
large  supply  of  offal  from  a slaughterhouse  and  expect  them  to  thrive 
and  produce  fine  fur.  But  little  more  than  the  amount  of  food  re- 
quired for  a cat  will  supply  the  wants  of  a skunk.  The  animals 
should  be  fed  once  or  twice  a day;  if  fed  but  once,  it  should  be  in  the 
evening.  Females  with  young  should  always  be  fed  twice  a day. 
Good  fresh  drinking  water  should  be  regularly  provided,  and  vessels 
used  for  food  or  water  should  be  kept  clean. 

BREEDING. 

Wliile  skunks  usually  breed  but  once  a year  in  captivity,  occa- 
sionally a second  litter  is  produced.  One  male  should  be  kept  for 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  SKUNKS. 


19 


five  to  eight  females.  The  mating  season  is  in  February  or  early 
March.  At  this  time  it  is  best  to  keep  the  females  and  a single  male 
in  one  run  together.  If  two  males  are  in  the  same  small  run  they 
are  likely  to  fight.  The  period  of  gestation  is  about  nine  weeks,  the 
young  coming  in  ^lay.  Before  the  young  are  born  the  females  should 
be  placed  in  separate  breeding  pens,  which,  as  previously  explained, 
may  be  a small  run  containing  a den  or  nest  box  provided  with 
nesting  materials. 

Tire  young  at  first  are  blind  and  almost  naked,  but  they  grow 
rapidly  and  are  weaned  when  about  two  months  old.  They  should 
then  be  placed  in  a run  set  aside  for  young  skunks.  They  are  mature 
and  have  prime  fur  in  December. 

About  the  end  of  this  month  breeding  stock  should  be  selected  for 
the  next  season.  Only  good-sized  dark  skunks  should  be  kept,  the 
broad-striped  and  rusty-colored  ones  being  killed  for  their  fur  or  set 
at  liberty.  As  far  as  possible  the  males  kept  for  breeding  should  be 
black  or  ^^star’’  skunks.  Careful 
selection  year  by  year  will  result 
in  a better  grade  of  fur.  According 
to  the  experience  of  several,  it  is 
possible  in  three  or  four  generations 
to  secure  a strain  of  skunks  the 
furs  of  which  will  all  grade  No.  1. 

REMOVAL  OF  SCENT  SACS. 

Kept  in  pens  secure  from  the 
intrusion  of  dogs  and  strangers, 
skunks  will  not  be  a source  of  annoyance  to  the  neighborhood.  The 
writer  has  visited  a number  of  skunk  ranches  where  no  odor  could  be 
detected  except  inside  the  yards,  and  it  was  scarcely  perceptible 
there.  The  animals  soon  become  very  tame  and  the  keeper  may 
handle  them  with  impunity. 

To  transfer  them  from  one  run  or  pen  to  another,  he  lifts  them  by 
the  tail,  grasping  this  appendage  by  the  heavy  part  rather  than  near 
the  tip.  However,  as  the  animals  are  easily  driven  from  place  to 
place,  they  may  be  transferred  without  being  handled.  While  it  is 
not  necessary  to  remove  the  scent  sacs  of  skunks  kept  for  fur,  this  is 
preferable  if  they  are  to  be  kept  as  household  pets  or  as  rat  destroyers. 
Without  the  scent  sacs  they  are  far  superior  to  cats  as  mousers. 

The  operation  of  removing  the  glands  is  attended  with  considerable 
danger  to  mature  skunks,  but  it  may  safely  be  performed  on  the 
young.  The  best  time  is  when  they  are  from  four  to  five  weeks  old, 
as  they  should  not  be  disturbed  in  the  nests  earlier.  To  remove  the 
glands  a short  incision  on  each  side  through  the  skin  and  envelop- 
ing muscle  is  necessary  (fig.  6).  This  exposes  the  round  hard  gland 


Fig.  6. — Diagram  showing  scent  sacs  of  skunks 
(dotted  lines),  a,  Anus  and  sphincter  muscle;  m, 
lines  of  incision  to  expose  sacs  and  ducts. 


20 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  587. 


and  the  duct.  Care  should  be  tak(ui  not  to  cut  the  duct  or  other 
organs.  When  exposed,  a clamping  forceps  should  be  placcnl  ov(u* 
the  duct  close  up  to  the  gland  (fig.  7).  Tlie  gland  is  then  cut  out 
and  the  duct  severed  just  beyond  the  clamp.  The  gland  with  clamp 
attached  is  then  lifted  out.  No  anesthetic  need  be  used  for  this  oper- 
ation on  a young  skunk,  but  the  older  the  animal  the  more  difficult 
it  will  be  because  of  the  larger  glands.  In  mature  animals  thc^  sacs 
are  nearly  three-fourths  inch  in  diameter. 

During  the  operation  the  skunk  is  held  between  the  knees  of  the 
operator  by  means  of  a gunny  sack  wrapped  about  its  body  and  feet. 
Of  course,  an  assistant  is  needed.  The  wounds  should  be  brushed 
with  a weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and  need  no  other  dressing. 

In  his  Mammals  of  the  Adirondacks,  Dr^  C.  Hart  Merriam  describes 
a less  severe  operation.  It  consists  of  cutting  so  as  to  expose  a 
section  of  the  duct  leading  from  the  gland  and  snipping  out  a short 
piece  of  it.  In  healing,  the  duct  is  permanently  closed  and  the 

animal  is  powerless  to 
use  its  musk. 

OBTAINING  SKUNKS  FOR 
BREEDING. 

As  skunks  inhabit 
most  parts  of  the 
United  States,  they 
may  usually  be  ob- 
tained in  the  neighbor- 
hood in  which  it  is  desired  to  breed  them.  The  best  method  is  to  dig 
the  young  out  of  dens  in  summer.  In  States  providing  a close 
season  for  skunks  this  could  not  be  done  without  a permit  from  the 
authorities.  If  such  permits  are  not  granted,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  capture  adult  animals  in  the  open  season.  The  assistance  of  local 
trappers  might  be  helpful  in  obtaining  stock.  A box  trap  is  best 
for  capturing  skunks  alive.  It  is  made  like  an  ordinary  rabbit  trap 
and  baited  with  a freshly  killed  mouse,  a piece  of  meat,  or  a chicken 
head.  When  a skunk  is  caught,  it  may  be  carried  to  the  inclosure 
before  removal  from  the  trap. 

Skunks  for  breeding  may  be  bought  from  trappers,  dealers  in  wild 
animals,  or  other  breeders.  In  some  places  express  companies 
refuse  to  accept  live  skunks  for  shipment.  However,  there  is  no 
danger  that  the  animals  will  use  their  scent  if  the  box  is  dark  inside 
and  not  subjected  to  rough  handling. 

HANDLING  THE  FUR. 

In  order  that  the  breeder  may  realize  the  best  prices  for  his 
product  he  must  be  acquainted  with  proper  methods  of  handling  and 


Fig.  7. — Section  through  scent  glands,  a,  Anus;  b,  sphincter  muscle; 
c,  position  for  clamps;  d,  muscle  about  scent  sacs;  s,  scent  sacs; 
/,  rectum;  m,  depth  (shaded  area)  of  incision  to  be  made.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  sphincter  nor  to  cut  into  the  sac 
or  duct.  Length  of  ducts  exaggerated. 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  SKUNKS. 


21 


marketing  the  pelts.  For  a time  his  surplus  stock  will  command 
higher  prices  for  breeding  purposes  than  he  could  obtain  for  the 
skins,  especially  if  the  skunks  are  ‘ 'deodorized,’’  so 
that  there  is  no  difficulty. in  shipping  them. 

The  best  method  of  killing  domesticated  skunks  for 
their  fur  is  by  suffocation.  A tight  wooden  box  large 
enough  to  hold  several  skunks  and  having  a close- 
fitting  door  (padded  if  necessary)  should  be  used. 

The  animals  may  be  driven  into  the  box  singly  or 
several  at  a time.  After  the  door  is  closed,  a small 
quantity  of  carbon  bisulphide  or  chloroform  should 
be  poured  on  a bunch  of  cotton  and  this  introduced 
into  the  box  through  a hole  in  the  top.  The  hole 
should  be  immediately  corked  or  otherwise  tightly 
closed.  The  amount  of  liquid  needed  will  depend  on 
the  size  of  the  box  and  the  number  of  skunks.  Two 
spoonfuls  of  either  liquid  is  enough  for  one  skunk 
in  a small  box,  and  not  much  more  is  required  for 
several  animals  unless  there  is  much  extra  space  in  the 
box.  The  animals  die  quickly  and  without  struggle. 

If  illuminating  gas  is  available  it  may  be  used  in- 
stead of  a volatile  liquid.  A rubber 
hose  carrying  the  gas  may  be  inserted 
through  the  hole  in  the  box.  The 
space  about  the  tube  may  be  plugged  with  cotton. 

Skunk  skins  should  be  "cased”  for  market.  The 
following  directions  for  skinning  should  be  observed : 

Begin  with  the  middle  of  the  hind  foot  and  with 
a sharp  knife  sht  Up  the  rear  edge  of  the  leg  to  the 
under  side  of  the  tail,  being  careful  not  to  cut  into 
the  scent  glands.  Then  cut  the  opposite  leg  in  the 
same  manner.  No  other  cuts  in  the  body  of  the 
animal  are  necessary.  Cut  around  the  heel  of  the 
feet  and  turn  the  skin  back  over  the  body.  Strip 
the  skin  from  the  tail  bone  with  the  help  of  a split 
stick  grasped  in  the  hand  while  the  thumb  presses 
ffrmly  against  the  back  of  the  animal  just  above 
the  tail.  Continue  to  turn  the  skin  back  over  the 
body,  using  the  knife  only  when  necessary  to  cut 
ligaments.  Care  should  always  be  taken  to  cut 
around  the  nose,  mouth,  and  eyes  to  avoid  tearing 
the  skin. 

Some  trappers  sht  the  tail  to  remove  the  bone. 
If  the  bojie  has  been  puUed  out,  the  tip  of  the  tail 
should  be  sht  for  about  an  inch  to  admit  air,  or  a httle  salt  or  alum 
may  be  pushed  dowii  into  the  extreme  tip. 


Fig.  8. — Diagram  of 
stretcher  made  of 
thin  board  for 
drying  skunk 
skins.  (Dimen- 
sions in  inches.) 


Fig.  9.— Diagram  of 
stretcher  similar 
to  that  shown  in 
figure  8,  but  made 
of  heavy  galvan- 
ized wire. 


22 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  587. 


The  skin  is  left  with  the  fur  side  turned  in  and  dried  on  a stretcher 
made  of  a thin  board  sharpened  to  a point  and  of  the  shape  and 
dimensions  shown  in  figure  8.  If  the  tail  has  beeji  split  open,  the 
board  should  be  long  enough  to  permit  the  tail  to  be  spread  out  and 
tacked  fast.  Several  tacks  are  also  needed  to  hold 
the  rear  end  of  the  skin  in  good  shape  while  dr3ring. 

Stretchers  made  of  heavy  galvanized  vdre  (fig.  9) 
have  many  advantages  over  wooden  ones  and  are 
now  extensively  used  by  trappers. 

After  the  skin  is  on  the  stretcher  all  fat  and  flesh 
adhering  to  the  pelt  should  be  scraped  off,  and  the 
drying  should  be  done  in  the  shade  of  a shed  or  tent 
where  the  air  circulates  freely — never  by  a fire  nor 
in  the  sun.  When  thoroughly  dry,  it  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  stretcher,  when  it  is  ready  for  market 
(fig.  10). 

SUMMARY. 

Skunks  are  among  the  most  Useful  of  the  native 
mammals  and  are  most  efficient  helps  to  the  farmer 
and  orchardist  in  their  warfare  against  insect  ana 
rodent  pests. 

Occasionally  an  individual  skunk  learns  to  prey 
upon  poultry,  and  if  the  evidences  of  its  depreda- 
tions are  unmistakable  the  animal  should  be  de- 
stroyed. This  may  easily  be  done  either  by  trap 
or  poison. 

As  a source  of  fur,  skunks  are  an  important  asset 
to  the  country.  They  bring  to  the  trappers  of  the 
United  States  about  $3,000,000  annually. 

In  view  of  their  usefulness  and  fur  value  these  animals  should  be 
protected  everywhere  by  a close  season  of  at  least  nine  months,  but 
the  right  of  farmers  to  destroy  predatory  skunks  should  be  reserved. 

The  propagation  of  skunks  for  their  fur  promises  to  develop  into 
an  important  industry.  It  is  at  least  a matter  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance to  warrant  the  most  careful  investigation,  and  experiments  in 
breeding  the  animals  should  be  generally  encouraged. 

o 


Fig.  10. — Skunk 
skin  stretched 
and  ready  for 
market. 


WASHIN(;T().\  : (iOVERNMENT  I'llINTlNG  OFFICE  : 1914 


U.S.DEPARTMENT  OE  AGRICULTURE 


June  24,  1914. 


ECONOMICAL  CATTLE  FEEDING  IN  THE  CORN  BELT. 

By  J.  S.  Cotton,  Agriculturist,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  and  W.  F.  Ward,  Senior 
Animal  Husbandman  in  Beef  Cattle  Investigations,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  cattle-feeding  business  has  changed  greatly  during  recent  years. 
'I'merly  steers  from  4 to  6 years  of  age  were  fed  in  large  numbers 
-on  commercial  feeds  at  yards  near  granaries  or  mills,  or  on  large 
:ms  where  only  the  roughage  was  grown,  and  the  cattle  were  kept 
full  feed  for  six  months  or  longer.  This  method  became  too  ex- 
nsive,  so  feeding  is  now  conducted  upon  farms  as  a means  of  mark- 
ng  farm  products  by 
averting  them  into  beef, 
lile  the  manure  produced 
utilized  as  a by-product 
• maintaining  fertility, 
the  present  time  in  the 
m belt  cattle  are  usually 
[ in  small  herds  of  one  to 
ir  carloads,  and  are  mar- 
ked at  18  months  to  3 
irs  of  age. 

There  have  been  a num- 
:*  of  factors  which  have 
ited  in  causing  these  changes.  For  instance  there  has  been  a gradual 
rease  in  the  value  of  farm  products  and  the  cost  of  farming  opera- 
ns.  In  the  seven  leading  cattle-feeding  States  the  prices  of  various 
ds  on  December  1 of  the  years  1899  to  1901  and  1909  to  1911  have 
m taken,  and  during  this  10-year  period  it  was  found  that  the  price 
corn  had  advanced  29  per  cent  and  hay  45  per  cent,  while  such  sup- 
mental  concentrates  as  linseed-oil  meal  and  cottonseed  meal  had 
_reased  in  about  the  same  proportion.  The  price  of  labor  has 
Vanced  31  per  cent,  and  feeder  steers  have  advanced  36  per  cent 
■ce  1904.  Lastly,  the  value  of  land  has  increased  103  per  cent 

OTE.— This  bulletin  is  intended  to  promote  cattle  feeding  on  moderate-sized  farms;  it  is  suitable  for  dis- 
ation  throughout  the  corn  belt. 

40360°— Bull.  588—14 1 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  588. 


during  the  decade  1900  to  1910.  This  increase  in  land  value  makes 
a much  larger  capitalization  upon  which  interest  must  be  charged. 

All  of  these  items  taken  together  make  a heavy  increase  in  the 
cost  of  feeding,  and  although  the  prices  of  finished  cattle  have  in- 
creased greatly,  they  have  not  kept  pace  with  the  increased  expenses. 
Thus,  comparing  the  three-year  period  from  1899  to  1901  with  that 
of  1909  to  1911,  native  steers  on  the  Chicago  market  have  advanced 
about  24  per  cent.  Again,  as  the  price  of  feeders  has  advanced  faster 
than  that  of  fat  cattle,  the  margin  of  profit  is  smaller  than  formerly. 
These  conditions  have  caused  many  feeders  either  to  curtail  their 
feeding  operations  greatly  or  else  stop  feeding  entirely. 

Another  important  factor  is  the  rapid  increase  in  tenant  farming 
in  many  of  the  cattle-feeding  sections,  and  tenant  farmers  are  seldom 
financially  able  to  practice  cattle  feeding.  Short-term  leases  dis- 
courage cattle  feeding  by  a tenant  and  encourage  soil  robbing.  The 
short-term  tenant  usually  will  not  feed  even  if  financially  able  to  do 
so.  These  changes  are  especially  noticeable  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  corn  belt.  In  the  western  portion  there  has  been  a tendency  to 
increase  the  number  of  cattle  fed. 

DECLINE  IN  THE  SUPPLY  OF  FEEDER  CATTLE. 

There  have  been  two  main  sources  of  supply  ior  feeder  cattle — 
those  grown  in  the  corn  belt,  commonly  called  natives,  and  those 
coming  from  the  western  ranges.  The  native  cattle  were  usually 
grown  on  the  rougher  farms  of  the  corn  belt,  or  on  small  farms,  where 
dual-purpose  cows  were  kept.  They  w^ere  usually  sold  to  local  feed- 
ers as  yearlings  or  2-year-olds . Some  feeders  desiring  animals  of 
extra  good  quality  raised  their  own  feeders.  The  rapid  advance  in 
the  prices  of  land  and  farm  products  made  it  unprofitable  to  compete 
with  the  western  ranges  in  the  production  of  stocker  and  feeder  cattle. 
Therefore,  in  nearly  all  portions  of  the  corn  belt  except  on  the  very 
rough  lands,  the  breeding  herds  were  greatly  reduced  or  were  changed 
for  dairy  cows,  and  as  a result  few  feeders  are  now  produced. 

The  exploitation  of  dry-land  farming  has  resulted  in  the  best  lands 
of  the  open  range  being  taken  up  for  grain-growing  purposes,  and  the 
number  of  cattle  over  the  entire  western  range  country  decreased 
rapidly,  due  to  excessive  liquidation,  which  culminated  with  the 
drought  of  1911-12.  Such  conditions  could  but  result  in  a shortage 
of  feeder  cattle.  Securing  feeders  is  now  a serious  problem  which 
must  be  solved  by  many  of  the  farmers  raising  their  own  cattle.  On 
the  high-priced  lands  that  are  capable  of  intensive  cultivation  it  is 
questionable  if  this  can  be  done  economically,  but  there  are  numerous 
farms  within  this  region  where  a considerable  proportion  of  the  land 
is  too  rough  for  economical  tillage,  and  on  which,  with  prevailing 
prices,  stock  cattle  can  be  raised  advantageously.  There  are  splendid 


ECONOMICAL  CATTLE  FEEDING  IN  THE  CORN  BELT. 


3 


opportunities  for  raising  cattle  in  the  southern  States,  and  on  some 
of  the  cut-over  lands  to  the  north  of  the  corn  belt.  While  the  western 
country  may  eventually  be  restocked,  it  will  be  some  years  before  it 
will  carry  as  many  cattle  as  formerly,  and  the  demand  for  feeders  will 
probably  increase  for  several  years  to  come. 

COST  OF  PRODUCING  CATTLE. 

It  is  dilficult  to  estimate  accurately  the  cost  of  raising  cattle,  as  it 
varies  greatly  on  different  farms.  Considerable  data  at  hand  show 
that  for  a calf  6 months  old,  weighing  450  pounds,  the  cost  of  raising 
varies  from  $17  to  $23  in  the  West  and  from  $20  to  $28  in  the  East. 
The  freight  rates  and  other  shipping  charges  from  the  West  will 
practically  offset  this  difference,  so  that  the  calves  will  cost  about  the 


Pig.  2. — Cattle  ranch  in  western  South  Dakota  that  was  abandoned  because  settlers  homesteaded  all 
the  range.  Observe  not  only  the  abandoned  cattle  ranch  bu  t the  settlers’  homesteads  in  the  distance. 

same  in  eastern  feed-lots  whether  raised  locally  or  shipped  from  the 
corn-belt  States.  At  6 cents  a pound  these  calves  would  ordinarily 
bring  about  $27  and  would  usually  insure  the  producer  a fair  profit. 

The  following  figures  show  the  cost  of  raising  calves  on  a ranch  in 
the  limestone  belt  of  Kansas,  where  land  is  worth  $50  an  acre.  The 
cows  were  valued  at  $70  each,  this  being  the  approximate  price  they 
would  bring  as  beef. 

Interest  on  investment  of  1.17  cows  at  6 per  cent  (estimating  85  per  cent  calf 


crop) 14.91 

Cost  of  feed  for  1.17  cows  for  one  year. 

Winter  feed  for  6 months  at  $10  per  cow 11.  70 

Summer  pasture  at  $4  per  cow  per  season 4.  68 

Bull  service 1.64 


Total 22.93 


4 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  588. 


Bull  service  is  reckoned  as  follows:  The  bulls  cost  $225;  they  will 
sell  at  the  end  of  three  years  for  about  $100,  a depreciation  of  $125, 
or  $41.67  a year.  Estimating  that  a bull  will  serve  50  cows  and  get 
an  85  per  cent  calf  crop,  he  will  produce  42  calves  yearly. 


Interest  on  investment  of  bull  per  calf $0. 32 

Depreciation  of  bull  per  calf 99 

Cost  per  calf  of  feed  for  bull  for  one  year  on  the  same  basis  as  for  cow 33 


Total 1.  04 


While  the  calf  crop  is  estimated  at  85  per  cent,  that  being  the  num- 
ber that  would  be  raised  to  the  age  of  6 months,  as  a matter  of  fact 
this  figure  is  seldom  attained.  The  cost  of  winter  feed  consumed  by 
cows  in  Kansas  does  not  always  reach  the  figure  of  $10  per  head,  as  it 


Fig.  3. — An  inexpensive  but  well  arranged  feed  yard  for  central  Kansas. 

did  on  this  ranch.  The  cost  of  wintering  cattle  varies  so  greatly, 
depending  upon  the  methods  used  and  upon  local  conditions,  that  this 
item  will  have  to  be  accounted  for  by  each  individual  farmer.  Taxes, 
insurance  (or  loss  of  cows  and  bulls),  depreciation  of  cows,  and 
interest,  taxes,  and  depreciation  on  the  winter  feeding  equipment 
have  not  been  considered.  These  have  been  allowed  to  offset  the 
manure.  The  cost  of  raising  an  animal  to  2J  years  old,  figuring 
interest,  taxes,  insurance,  feed,  and  overhead  charges,  was  approxi- 
mately $55.  This  figure  is  about  the  maximum  cost  of  such  a steer 
in  the  corn  belt,  and  many  of  the  western  ranches  raise  similar  steers 
for  less  money. 

Figures  have  been  compiled  to  show  the  cost  of  growing  calves 
when  they  are  weaned  and  the  cows  used  for  production  of  milk. 
While  the  figures  are  not  complete  they  show  that  the  cost  will  be  a 


economical  cattle  feeding  in  the  corn  belt. 


5 


little  less  than  where  the  calf  is  allowed  to  run  with  its  mother.  Under 
such  conditions  all  expenses  of  the  cow  and  the  bull  arc  charged  to  the 
milk.  There  are,  however,  other  expenses  which  must  be  included. 
Skimmed  milk  and  a considerable  quantity  of  expensive  concentrates 
to  supplement  the  milk  are  required;  and  as  such  a calf  requires 
considerable  attention  the  labor  costs  are  greatly  increased.  Then, 
too,  the  chances  of  loss  are  much  greater  than  when  the  calf  runs  with 
its  mother.  While  the  figures  show  a fair  chance  for  profit  in  tliis 
method,  nevertheless  the  prevailing  prices  for  calves  when  only  a 
few  weeks  old  are  such  that  few  farmers  mil  care  to  take  the  extra 
risk  and  work,  but  will  prefer  to  sell  them  for  veal. 

ADDITIONAL  FACTORS  INFLUENCING  THE  COST  OF  STOCKER  AND  FEEDER  CATTLE. 

There  are  two  additional  factors  that  greatly  influence  the  price 
of  Stocker  and  feeder  cattle;  first,  the  increased  demand  for  veal,  and 
second,  the  increased  competition  in  securing  feeders. 

Demand  for  veal. — The  demand  for  veal  has  increased  rapidly,  and 
not  only  are  the  surplus  dairy  calves  slaughtered,  but  thousands  of 
beef  calves  as  well.  Census  figures  show  that  in  1899,  883,857  calves, 
having  an  average  value  of  $8.20,  were  slaughtered  in  wholesale 
slaughtering  houses,  while  in  1909,  2,504,728  calves,  with  an  average 
value  of  $10,  were  slaughtered,  an  increase  of  183  per  cent  in  10  years, 
whereas  the  corresponding  increase  in  cattle  for  the  same  period  was 
but  47  per  cent.  This  does  not  include  the  number  of  calves  that  are 
killed  on  farms  and  in  small  slaughter  houses. 

This  growing  demand  for  veal  has  raised  the  price  of  that  com- 
modity until  a calf  will  sell  for  $8  to  $12  when  only  2 or  3 months  old. 
This  means  that  unless  the  farmer  has  unhmited  cheap  feeds,  it  is 
usually  more  profitable  to  market  the  dairy  or  dual-purpose  calves 
than  to  attempt  to  raise  them,  even  though  some  of  them  might  make 
good  steers.  While  many  deplore  this  heavy  slaughter  of  calves, 
and  legislation  against  it  has  been  urged,  the  consumers^  demands 
must  be  met. 

Competition: — While  the  number  of  cattle  has  decreased,  the 
demand  for  meat  has  naturally  grown  until  not  only  have  the  exports 
nearly  ceased,  but  the  packers,  that  they  may  provide  cheaper  meat, 
are  now  buying  many  cattle  that  were  formerly  fed.  The  farmers 
who  formerly  bought  nearly  finished  cattle  as  feeders  have  been  com- 
pelled to  pay  higher  prices  for  such  cattle  or  to  take  thinner  animals, 
thus  in  turn  increasing  the  demand  for  this  class. 

BUYING  AND  SELLING  CATTLE. 

Much  importance  should  be  attached  to  the  buying  and  selling  of 
cattle,  for  the  success  of  a feeder  will  depend  as  much  on  his  ability 
to  purchase  and  to  market  his  cattle  advantageously  as  it  will  on  his 


6 


FAKMERS^  BULLETIN  588. 


skill  in  finishing  them.  Successful  feeders  should  study  the  market 
papers  in  order  to  be  in  position  to  buy  cattle  to  advantage.  Further- 
more^  they  should  study  the  general  trend  of  the  market  for  fat  cattle 
that  they  may  sell  their  cattle  when  the  market  is  strong,  for  at 
different  times  of  the  year  certain  grades  of  cattle  sell  better  than 
others. 

Before  purchasing  his  feeders  the  farmer  should  estimate  the  quan- 
tity of  feeds  on  hand  and  their  market  price,  the  number  and  class 
and  size  of  cattle  desired,  and  the  time  required  to  consume  the  feed. 
Then  he  can  estimate  from  market  reports  the  approximate  cost  of 
his  feeders,  and  with  these  various  items  at  hand  can  figure  what  they 
must  sell  for  if  he  is  to  break  even.  He  is  then  in  position  to  select 
steers  which  will  suit  the  given  conditions.  If  the  outlook  is  not 
good,  it  is  usually  advisable  not  to  purchase  at  that  time.  It  is  an 
old  adage  among  stockmen  that  cattle  bought  right  are  more  than 
half  sold.’’  A man  may  be  a skillful  feeder  and  lose  money  year  after 
year  because  of  poor  judgment  in  buying.  The  beginner  should  hire 
some  experienced  cattleman  to  purchase  animals  that  will  best  suit 
his  needs,  or  deal  with  a rehable  commission  firm  that  is  acquainted 
with  his  conditions.  By  following  the  various  market  reports  the 
feeder  can  tell  approximately  when  his  cattle  can  be  marketed  to 
greatest  advantage.  The  steers  should  be  fed  so  as  to  be  finished  at 
that  time.  When  the  steers  are  ready  for  market,  it  is  usually  not 
advisable  to  hold  for  better  prices  unless  they  continue  to  gain  in 
weight  and  condition.  The  extra  feed  consumed  by  finished  cattle 
will  soon  more  than  offset  any  ordinary  increase  in  price  that  may 
be  obtained.  When  they  are  almost  finished  the  owner  should  watch 
the  market  reports  and  communicate  with  his  commission  man  to 
determine  the  date  of  shipment. 

There  is  at  times  a strong  demand  for  cattle  that  are  not  quite 
finished  but  winch  would  class  as  ^‘good  killers,”  and  the  price  of  these 
cattle  frequently  approaches  very  near  that  for  prime  steers.  Such 
conditions  justify  a feeder  in  sending  his  steers  to  market  at  that 
stage,  as  it  is  sometimes  more  profitable  than  finisliing  them,  for  the 
gains  made  during  the  latter  part  of  the  feeding  period  are  very  expen- 
sive. It  is  always  wise  to  ship  the  cattle  when  the  markets  insure  a 
reasonable  profit.  Too  many  feeders  in  looking  for  a better  price 
overstay  the  market  and  get  caught  on  the  decline. 

It  is  the  uniform  opinion  of  commission  men  that  the  farmers’ 
losses  would  be  less  if  they  knew  more  about  market  conditions  and 
also  knew  more  about  the  actual  cost  of  the  feeding  operations  on 
their  farms.  This  simply  emphasizes  the  importance  of  keeping 
farm  records  of  the  cost  of  feeding  and  studying  the  market  papers 
and  reports. 


ECONOMICAL  CATTLE  FEEDING  IN  THE  CORN  BELT.  7 

COST  OF  FEEDING  CATTLE. 

To  determine  as  accurately  as  possible  the  cost  of  feeding  farm 
animals  cost-accounting  records  were  kept  for  two  years  on  24  Iowa 
farms.  The  men  selected  were  leading  farmers  in  their  communi- 
ties, known  to  be  careful  and  experienced  feeders.  During  the  feed- 
ing year  beginning  with  the  fall  of  1909  the  average  profit  on  961 
cattle  fed  in  22  bunches  was  $2.05  per  head,  in  addition  to  the  profits 
on  the  hogs  following  them.  The  prices  received  were  very  satis- 
factory. The  1,504  hogs  following  these  steers  were  given  extra 
grain.  Market  prices  in  the  spring  of  1910  were  such  that  a profit  of 
$6.67  per  hog  was  secured,  thus  giving  a profit  of  $12.49  per  steer 
when  the  pork  was  credited  to  the  steers. 

The  following  feeding  year,  1910-11,  proved  unsatisfactory,  due  to 
prices  which  caused  a loss  of  78  cents  per  head  on  1,138  cattle  that 
were  fed  on  28  farms.  The  1,646  hogs  following  these  steers  returned 
an  average  profit  of  $3.33,  or,  when  the  profit  on  the  hogs  was  credited 
to  the  steers,  the  net  profit  was  $4.04  per  steer. 

Few  feeders  in  the  past  have  kept  records  of  exact  expenses  of  the 
feeding  operation,  although  many  of  them  knew  approximately  what 
it  cost.  It  is  essential  that  such  records  be  kept,  for  the  fast  increas- 
ing prices  of  feeders  seem  to  indicate  that  the  margin  on  cattle  may 
be  closer  than  formerly.  Until  systems  of  cost  accounting  wliich 
took  into  account  all  the  overhead  charges  as  well  as  the  main  cost 
were  used  the  expense  of  feeding  was  underestimated.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  proportionate  cost  of  different  items,  based  on 
the  cost-accounting  records  kept  on  the  24  Iowa  farms.  These  figures 
will  vary  somewhat  from  year  to  year  as  the  relative  prices  of  cattle 
and  feeds  change.  The  greatest  variation  will  occur  in  the  original 
cost  of  the  cattle  and  in  the  cost  of  the  feeds. 


Percentage  of  the  various  expenses  incurred  in  cattle  feeding  on  24  Iowa  farms. 


Year. 

Pur- 

chase 

price.i 

Feed. 

Interest 
at  6 per 
cent. 

Labor. 

Shipping 

and 

selling. 2 

Total. 

190&-10 

Per  cent. 

55.8 

59.9 

Per  cent. 
36.9 
31.8 

Per  cent. 
1.3 
1.8 

Per  cent. 
1.6 
1.8 

Per  cent. 
4.4 
4.7 

Per  cent. 
100 
100 

1910-11 

1 Delivered  at  farm  (including  freight  and  incidental  charges). 

2 Exclucive  of  shrinkage. 


It  wiU  be  seen  that  the  purchase  price  of  the  catcle  was  rather  more 
than  one-half  of  the  total  cost  for  the  two  years,  while  the  cost  of  the 
feed  averaged  about  one- third  of  the  total  expense.  In  this  table 
no  account  is  made  of  the  occasional  loss  of  a steer,  which  ordinarily 
averages  one-half  of  1 per  cent  of  the  total  number  per  year.  Neither 
have  interest,  taxes,  and  depreciation  charges  on  the  feeding  plant 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  588. 


been  considered,  as  it  is  impossible  to  make  any  definite  charges  for 
these  items.  A careful  study  indicates  that  these  and  other  inci- 
dental charges  would  about  offset  the  value  of  the  manure,  which  is 
also  difficult  to  estimate. 

Interest. — Many  feeding  statements  are  made  which  do  not  include 
interest.  This  item  must  be  considered,  for  the  farmer  financing 
such  an  operation  must  either  borrow  or  set  aside  a certain  amount 
of  money  that  might  be  permanently  invested  elsewhere.  In  the 
foregoing  table  interest  has  been  charged  at  6 per  cent  on  the  cost  ot 
the  cattle  laid  down  at  the  farm,  that  being  the  amount  that  the 
farmer  will  ordinarily  borrow  or  withhold. 

Labor.' — The  cost  of  labor  is  seldom  included  in  cattle-feeding  trans- 
actions,  as  it  is  customary  to  allow  this  item  to  offset  the  value  of  the 
manure.  For  reasons  previously  stated  this  should  be  made  a sepa- 
rate charge.  In  the  above  records,  figuring  man  labor  at  16  cents  and 
horse  labor  at  8 cents  an  hour,  the  labor  cost  on  49  bunches  of  cattle 
totaling  2,100  head  for  an  average  feeding  period  of  146  days  was  a 
little  over  9-|  mills  per  head  per  day.  The  cost  varied  from  4 mills 
to  as  high  as  2 or  3 cents,  depending  on  the  manner  in  which  the  cattle 
were  fed.  A large  feeder  in  Kansas  who  formerly  fed  1 ,000  steers 
each  winter  for  commission  men,  in  making  up  his  charges,  figured 
on  1 cent  a day  per  steer  for  labor.  On  500  head  this  gave  him  a 
small  profit,  which  increased  with  the  number  fed.  A large  feeding 
plant  that  operated  for  1 1 years  in  Nebraska  and  during  that  time  fed 
about  50,000  steers,  figured  its  labor  cost  at  1 .2  cents  per  head  per  day. 
While  this  firm  had  expensive  labor  and  equipment,  it  nevertheless 
had  every  convenience  for  the  economic  handling  of  the  feeds. 

Selling  costs. — The  selling  cost,  including  freight,  yardage,  com- 
mission, and  other  incidentals,  wiU  vary  with  the  distance  shipped. 
The  total  cost  on  676  cattle  shipped  from  central  Iowa  to  Chicago 
amounted  to  $3.98  per  head,  or  31  cents  per  hundredweight.  This 
does  not  include  shrinkage  in  transit,  which  would  have  to  be  added 
to  these  costs.  As  the  average  shrinkage  in  transit  of  all  classes  of 
cattle  is  about  4 per  cent  of  their  live  weight,  the  value  of  this  loss  in 
weight  may  be  added  to  the  above  costs  and  the  amount  calculated 
on  the  hundredweight  basis.  These  figures  give  a fair  working 
estimate,  as  ordinarily  the  freight  rate  will  not  run  much  higher, 
because  persons  living  farther  east  will  either  be  a shorter  distance 
from  Chicago  or  will  choose  some  market  still  farther  east.  Those 
livuig  farther  west  will,  to  a great  extent,  patronize  the  river’’ 
stockyards.  A prominent  Kansas  feeder  estimates,  figuring  all 
charges,  that  it  costs  50  cents  per  hundredweight  to  ship  from  the 
central  part  of  that  State  to  Chicago,  this  charge  varying  somewhat 
with  the  weight  of  the  cattle. 


ECONOMICAL  CATTLE  FEEDINCx  IN  THE  CORN  BELT. 


9 


FEEDING  MARGIN. 

The  (lifTerence  between  the  purchase  ])rice  and  the  selling  price  of 
an  animal  is  called  the  margin  of  ])rofit.  This  is  usually  estimated 
on  the  basis  of  100  pounds  live  weight.  Thus  a margin  of  $1.50 
means  that  the  feeder  received  $1.50  per  hundredweight  more  for  the 
animals  than  he  paid  for  them.  The  amount  of  margin  is  a very 
important  factor  in  the  profit  from  feeding  steers.  The  margin  re- 
quired to  break  even  in  feeding  operations  depends  upon  a number 
of  factors,  the  principal  ones  being  (1)  the  purchase  price,  (2)  the 
weight  of  the  cattle  when  purchased,  (3)  the  value  of  the  feeds  used, 
(4)  the  gain  in  weight  made  by  the  animals,  and  (5)  the  length  of  the 
feeding  period.  The  higher  the  purchase  price,  the  heavier  the  steer 
when  purchased,  the  cheaper  the  feeds,  the  greater  the  daily  gains, 
and  the  shorter  the  feeding  period,  the  smaller  the  margin  may  be 
between  the  purchase  price  and  the  selling  price  of  the  cattle,  without 
loss  to  the  feeder.  With  a steer  of  poor  quality  and  with  high-priced 
feeds,  the  margin  must  of  necessity  be  great,  but  with  the  best  quality 
of  steers  and  with  cheap  feeds  the  necessary  margin  may  be  very 
small. 

EQUIPMENT. 

The  necessary  equipment  depends  on  the  locality  and  the  time  of 
year  the  cattle  are  fed.  When  cattle  are  fed  on  pasture  the  feed 
bunks  for  the  concentrates  are  usually  all  that  is  needed.  If  dry-lot 
feeding  is  practiced,  during  those  seasons  other  than  winter  a lot  of 
sufficient  size  containing  the  necessary  feed  bunks,  hay  racks,  and 
water  troughs  is  sufficient. 

If  winter  feeding  is  practiced,  some  form  of  shelter  is  necessary, 
the  amount  varying  with  the  region.  In  Kansas  and  Nebraska, 
where  there  are  comparatively  few  stormy  days  in  early  winter,  yards 
having  a southern  exposure  and  a slope  that  will  drain  readily  will 
usually  be  sufficient.  That  portion  of  the  yards  where  the  cattle  lie 
down  should  be  protected  by  windbreaks.  In  localities  where 
stormy  weather  is  more  prevalent  barns  or  sheds  are  usually  neces- 
sary. If  barns  are  used  they  should  be  well  ventilated,  and  in  such 
manner  that  the  cattle  whl  not  be  in  a direct  draft.  Sheds  that  are 
open  on  one  side,  preferably  to  the  south,  usually  prove  more  satis- 
factory, not  only  because  they  are  cheaper,  but  because  the  cattle  do 
better  except  in  very  severe  weather. 

The  modern  feeder  should  have  that  part  of  the  feed  lot  paved 
where  the  cattle  lie  down.  If  these  areas  are  well  bedded  the  cattle 
can  always  keep  comfortable  and  will  consequently  make  better 
gains.  It  is  not  infrequent  that  a period  of  warm  weather  occurs 
during  the  winter  and  the  lots  become  very  muddy,  making  it  neces- 
sary to  ship  the  cattle  before  they  are  ready.  This  sometimes  causes 
40360°— BuU.  588—14 2 


10 


FAEMEKS^  BULLETIN  588. 


a congestion  of  the  market,  with  a consequent  drop  in  prices.  The 
feeder  who  is  forced  to  ship  because  of  muddy  lots  may  lose  more  in 
one  year  than  the  cost  of  the  pavement. 

Not  only  will  the  cattle  make  better  gains,  but  animals  that  are 
covered  with  manure  and  mud  are  usually  discriminated  against  to 
the  extent  of  10  to  15  and  sometimes  25  cents  per  hundredweight. 
It  has  also  been  definitely  shown  that  hogs  following  steers  on  paved 
lots  make  nearly  1 pound  more  of  pork  per  bushel  of  corn  fed  the 
steers  than  do  those  in  ordinary  mud  lots.^  With  pork  at  6 cents  a 
pound  this  item  will  amount  to  about  $1.50  per  steer. 


Fig.  4.— a feed  yard  in  Nebraska  where  cattle  can  not  make  proper  gains  because  of  muddy  condition 
of  the  yard.  The  feed  lot  is  more  than  a quarter  of  a mile  long.  Feed  is  at  one  end  and  water  at  the 
other.  In  wet  weather  cattle  consumed  30  minutes  of  time  tramping  through  the  mud  from  feed  to 
water  or  vice  versa. 


CARE  OF  THE  MANURE. 

As  cattle  will  be  fed  more  as  a means  of  maintaining  fertility  than 
as  a direct  source  of  profit,  the  manure  must  be  properly  cared  for. 
Paved  fioors  should  be  provided  for  the  buildings  or  for  that  part  of 
the  yard  which  the  cattle  frequent  most,  and  sufficient  bedding  should 
be  used  to  absorb  the  urine. ^ Two-thirds  of  the  nitrogen  and  from 
three-fifths  to  three-fourths  of  the  potash  are  passed  off  in  the  urine. 

On  a three-months^  feed  from  2 to  2^  tons  of  manure,  including  the 
bedding,  will  be  produced  by  a 1,000-pound  steer.  That  the  greatest 
value  may  be  obtained  from  this  manure  it  should  either  be  hauled 
to  the  field  as  soon  as  produced  or  be  allowed  to  accumulate  in  sheds 


1 Beef  Production,  H.  W.  Mumford,  Urbana,  111.,  1907,  pp.  145-146. 

2 See  Farmers’  Bulletin  481,  ‘^Concrete  Construction  on  the  Live  Stock  Farm.” 


ECONOMICAL  CATTLE  FEEDING  IN  THE  CORN  BELT. 


11 


where  the  cattle  will  keep  it  tramped,  sufficient  bedding  being  used 
to  absorb  the  liquid  portion  and  to  keep  the  animals  clean  and  dry. 
As  soon  as  possible  after  the  cattle  are  sold  the  manure  should  be 
hauled  to  the  field. 

Even  with  the  best  of  care  there  will  be  some  loss.  When  feeders 
bought  concentrates,  as  they  formerly  did,  this  loss  was  more  than 
offset  by  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  purchased  grain,  and  the  farms 
were  rapidly  built  up  to  a liigh  state  of  fertility.  As  the  purchasing 
of  large  quantities  of  extra  grain  is  now  impracticable,  this  loss  will 
have  to  be  made  up  in  some  other  way.  The  nitrogen  can  bo  sup- 
plied by  groving  legumes  or  by  using  linseed-oil  cake  or  cottonseed 


Fig.  5.— a conveniently  arranged  feeding  system  that  would  be  ideal  if  that  part  of  the  yard  shown 
were  paved.  Note  some  of  the  steers  in  mud  almost  to  the  hocks.  These  cattle  had  to  be  held  after 
they  were  finished  to  get  them  free  of  some  of  the  mud  and  manure  with  which  they  were  covered. 

cake  as  a supplementary  feed,  and  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  provide 
for  the  equivalent  amount  of  phosphorus  that  is  taken  away,  which 
is  comparatively  inexpensive,  except  on  soils  deficient  in  potash,  in 
which  case  the  latter  element  also  will  have  to  be  supplied. 

The  value  of  the  manure  depends  on  its  care,  the  feeds  used,  the 
cost  of  getting  it  on  the  land,  and  the  elements  that  the  soil  needs. 
If  the  manure  is  dropped  in  open  yards  and  exposed  to  the  weather 
much  plant  food  is  lost.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  voided  on  paved 
floors  in  sheds  the  losses  will  not  be  so  great.  On  badly  run-down 
soils  manure  can  be  valued  at  the  market  price  of  the  elements  that  it 
contains,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  worth  even  more  than  the  commercial 
value  of  the  fertilizing  elements  because  of  its  effect  on  the  mechanical 


12 


FAEMERS^  BULLETIN  588. 


condition  of  the  soil.  On  soils  naturally  rich  in  humus  and  plant 
food  and  where  clover  is  grown,  the  value  of  the  manure  will  be  much 
less.  The  ordinary  farm  price  of  $1  to  $1.50  per  ton  seems  about 
right  if  the  haul  is  not  too  great. 

SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING  TO  MAINTAIN  SOIL  FERTILITY. 

While  it  is  possible  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil  without  any 
live  stock  on  the  farm,  it  is  doubtful  whether  such  systems  are 
advisable  under  present  conditions  for  the  corn-belt  farms.  This  is 
partly  because  they  require  careful  farming  on  an  intensive  scale,  and 
also  for  the  reason  that  without  live  stock  the  country  would  not  be 
in  a position  to  utilize  the  corn  crop.  These  systems  are  based  on 
the  utilization  of  green  manure  crops  and  commercial  fertilizers. 
Types  of  successful  farming  in  this  region  should,  for  some  time  to 
come,  include  sufficient  live  stock  to  help  maintain  fertility,  to  utilize 
the  waste  products  on  the  farm,  and  to  consume  part  of  the  immense 
quantities  of  corn  produced. 

The  system  to  be  followed  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  climate, 
the  conditions  of  the  farm,  and  the  preferences  of  the  farmer.  In 
their  efforts  to  adjust  themselves  to  present  conditions,  progressive 
feeders  have  worked  out  a number  of  systems  which  wiQ  probably 
prove  successful  for  some  time  to  come. 

CATTLE  FEEDING  ON  HIGH-PRICED  LAND. 

As  most  of  the  tillable  land  is  capable  of  producing  large  yields  of 
corn,  the  usual  rotation  will  be  corn  one  or  two  years,  small  grain,  and 
clover.  On  such  a farm  cattle  should  be  fed,  and  if  all  the  land  is  m 
rotation  they  can  be  fed  in  dry  lots.  Calves  or  young  steers  make  a 
larger  gain  per  pound  of  feed  than  mature  steers,  but  hogs  following 
them  do  not  fatten  as  rapidly.  Then,  too,  calves  or  yearlings  must 
be  higher  in  quality  and  better  bred  than  mature  steers  to  seU  well. 
Heavy  steers  may  be  rougher  and  have  less  quality  than  younger 
cattle,  but  still  sell  well  if  they  are  fat.  The  feeding  should  be  con- 
ducted during  those  months  when  other  work  is  at  a minimum,  that 
the  labor  may  be  better  distributed.  This  is  especially  desirable  on 
farms  where  the  labor  is  employed  the  year  round  in  order  to  have 
competent  help  during  the  busy  season. 

If  a portion  of  the  land  is  too  rough  for  cultivation,  or  if  the  farm  is 
of  such  a size  that  there  is  too  much  land  for  the  help  employed  and 
not  enough  to  demand  another  hand,  it  is  often  advisable  to  keep 
this  extra  land  in  permanent  pasture.  On  many  large  farms 
it  is  better,  because  of  the  scarcity  of  labor,  to  farm  less  intensively 
and  keep  a considerable  area  in  pasture.  Under  such  circumstances 
feeding  on  pasture  should  prove  remunerative. 


ECONOMICAL  CATTLE  FEEDING  IN  THE  CORN  BELT.  13 

Many  experienced  feeders  have  in  the  past  preferred  summer  feed- 
ing, as  they  considered  it  more  profitable.  Experimental  evidence 
secured  by  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  ^ sliows  that  a bushel  of 
corn  will  produce  6.9  pounds  of  gain  when  the  cattle  are  fed  on  pasture 
in  summer,  as  against  5.6  pounds  in  winter  feedmg.  While  summer 
feeding  on  pasture  has  in  the  past  proved  more  profitable,  it  is  a 
question  in  the  minds  of  many  if  it  would  not  he  more  remunerative 
to  put  these  pastures  mto  rotation  where  corn  can  he  grown,  when 
good  help  can  be  secured. 

The  advantages  of  winter  feeding  consist  in  the  opportunities  to 
make  better  use  of  the  by-prod ucds,  such  as  corn  fodder,  damaged 
hay,  etc.,  and  the  better  distribution  of  labor.  In  the  western  part 
of  the  corn  belt  the  majority  of  the  cattle  are  fed  during  the  late  fall 
and  early  winter  months,  so  that  they  may  be  out  of  the  way  before 
bad  weather  sets  in,  thus  avoiding  expensive  shelter.  A little  farther 
east,  where  the  disagreeable  weather  begins  earlier,  it  is  customary 
to  rough  the  cattle  on  pasture  and  stalk  fields  until  December  or 
January,  when  they  are  put  into  the  yards  and  fattened.  In  the 
eastern  part  of  the  corn  belt  cattle  are  frequently  fattened  in  sheds  or 
barns. 

The  number  of  steers  to  be  fattened  depends  on  the  quantity  of 
roughage  available.  If  there  is  a surplus  of  corn  it  should  be  sold  or 
fed  to  hogs.  On  the  other  hand,  if  there  is  a slight  deficiency,  it  may 
prove  more  economical  to  buy  a little  com  or  other  concentrate  than 
to  dispose  of  the  rough  feed. 

LENGTH  OF  THE  FATTENING  PERIOD. 

The  time  required  to  fatten  cattle  depends  largely  on  the  animals 
themselves.  Thin  cattle  require  more  time  than  those  in  good  condi- 
tion, while  cattle  of  mferior  quality  can  not  be  profitably  carried  to  as 
high  a degree  of  finish  as  animals  of  a better  grade.  The  length  of 
the  fattenmg  period  will  also  depend  upon  the  prices  of  the  feeds  used. 
Wlien  corn  is  high  the  various  roughages  or  other  cheap  feeds  should 
largely  be  used,  and  the  grain  ration  limited,  especially  during  the 
first  half  of  the  feeding  period.  This  will  necessitate  the  steers  being 
fed  for  a longer  period  before  the  real  fattening  process  begins.  When 
corn  is  cheap,  steers  can  be  kept  on  full  feed  longer  and  more  corn  can 
be  utilized  in  finishing. 

Formerly  from  six  to  eight  months  were  required  for  making  prime 
beef.  Because  of  the  great  expense  in  fattening  such  cattle  and 
because  the  demand  is  becoming  somewhat  limited,  few  feeders  follow 
this  practice  at  the  present  time.  The  average  feeder  of  to-day  can 
not  afford  to  keep  cattle  on  full  feed  to  exceed  five  months. 


1 See  Bulletin  75,  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  p.  37. 


14  FARMERS^  BULLETIN  588. 

QUALITY  OF  CATTLE  TO  USE. 

Generally  speaking,  the  feeder  should  handle  only  the  beef  breeds. 
Any  of  these  are  good,  and  crosses  such  as  the  Hereford-Sh  or  thorn  are 
often  preferred.  Usually  only  animals  of  fairly  good  quality  should 
be  used,  as  they  sell  for  a Ingher  price  and  dress  a higher  percentage 
of  beef. 

If  there  is  an  abundance  of  rough  feed,  it  is  better  to  buy  rather  thin 
steers;  but  if  the  quantity  of  roughage  is  limited,  it  will  be  better  to 
get  fleshy  steers  that  can  be  finished  in  a short  time  and  get  them  on 
full  feed  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  inexperienced  feeder  should  always  handle  cattle  of  good 
quality  that  are  as  uniform  in  size  and  condition  as  possible.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  experienced  feeder  who  is  in  touch  with  market  con- 
ditions should  handle  those  animals  which  he  thinks  will  make  him 
the  most  money,  regardless  of  quality. 

WINTER  FATTENING. 

There  are  a number  of  combinations  of  feeds  that  can  be  used  for 
fattening  cattle  during  the  winter.  These  rations  should  be  so  com- 
pounded as  to  utilize  a large  quantity  of  available  corn  fodder  which 
is  chiefly  handled  as  corn  stover  or  silage. 

SILAGE  FOR  WINTER  FEEDING. 

Silage  is  being  more  extensively  used  in  fattening  cattle  each  year. 
Its  addition  to  any  ration  for  fattening  cattle  results  in  larger  and 
cheaper  daily  gains.  The  quantity  of  corn  consumed  by  silage-fed 
cattle  is  practically  the  same  as  that  consumed  by  cattle  receiving 
dry  roughage  and  corn,  when  the  quantity  of  corn  in  the  silage  is 
taken  into  consideration.  Silage  should  be  considered  only  as  a 
roughage  and  should  not  be  expected  to  replace  more  corn  than  is 
contained  in  it,  but  slightly  larger  daily  gains  may  be  expected  from 
its  use. 

While  silage  can  usually  be  produced  cheaply  and  may  be  considered 
a cheap  feed,  it  is  not  necessarily  so.  Unless  the  feeder  has  enough 
stock  to  consume  at  least  100  tons  of  silage  the  silo  is  anything  but 
economical,  considering  the  amount  of  capital  required  for  a silo  and 
machinery  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  feed  produced.^  Then^ 
too,  the  economy  of  silage  will  depend  upon  its  relative  cost  as  com- 
pared with  other  forms  of  roughage.  In  years  of  cheap  hay,  when 
alfalfa  or  clover  is  worth  less  than  $8  per  ton,  it  is  doubtful  if 
silage  costing  $3  a ton  will  prove  economical.  However,  when  hay 
sells  at  more  than  the  above  price,  silage  will  prove  cheaper  unless 
the  cost  of  producing  it  also  increases.  Those  desiring  a fuller  dis- 


1 See  Bulletin  73,  Bureau  of  Statistics,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  p.  73. 


economical  cattle  feeding  in  the  corn  belt. 


15 


cussion  concerning  the  value  and  use  of  silage  for  winter  feeding  should 
read  Farmers’  Bulletin  578,  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

DRY  FEEDING. 

Those  persons  to  whom  silage  feeding  is  impracticable  will  find 
that  cattle  may  still  be  economically  fattened  when  shocked  corn 
and  a good  quality  of  straw  are  utilized  as  part  of  the  rough  feed. 
While  there  is  more  waste  in  feeding  shocked  corn,  nevertheless,  a 
ton  and  a half  of  stover  has  approximately  the  same  feeding  value 
as  a ton  of  timothy  hay.  The  waste  stalks  that  are  too  coarse  to  be 
readily  eaten  will  serve  as  bedding  and  can  be  worked  into  manure. 
Cattle  may  be  turned  out  into  the  cornfields  to  consume  the  stover 
in  years  when  there  is  plenty  of  cheap  roughage.  Although  there  is 
considerable  waste  of  forage,  the  stalks,  providing  they  are  plowed 
under  and  not  burned,  will  furnish  considerable  humus,  and  the 
expense  of  hauling  to  the  barn  in  the  form  of  fodder  and  returning 
to  the  field  in  the  form  of  manure  will  be  avoided.  During  years  of 
high-priced  roughage,  however,  this  practice  will  not  be  economical. 

FEEDING  ON  PASTURE. 

In  regions  of  high-priced  land  there  is  a tendency  to  plow  up  the 
pastures  that  are  suitable  for  cultivation  and  grow  more  corn.  How- 
ever, to  make  better  use  of  the  rough  portion  of  their  farms  and  to 
make  a better  adjustment  of  their  farming  operations,  some  farmers 
will  prefer  summer  feeding  on  pasture.  This  can  be  done  on  a per- 
manent blue-grass  pasture  or  on  a field  of  timothy  and  clover.  The 
permanent  pasture  sod  should  be  at  least  5 years  old.  If  the 
pasture  is  temporary  it  will  usually  be  necessary  to  feed  some  supple- 
mentary concentrate,  such  as  cottonseed  meal,  in  addition  to  corn. 

In  fattening  on  pasture  the  aim  should  be  to  utilize  as  much  grass 
as  possible.  Therefore,  cattle  carried  through  the  winter  with  the 
expectation  of  finishing  on  pasture  should  seldom  be  fed  heavily 
during  the  winter.  It  is  considered  better  economy  to  carry  them 
on  cheap  feeds,  keeping  them  thrifty  without  endeavoring  to  put  on 
any  increase  in  flesh.  Such  cattle  will  make  rapid  gains  when  turned 
on  pasture  and  can  be  finished  late  in  the  season  with  a minimum 
amount  of  corn. 

METHODS  ADAPTED  TO  MODERATE-PRICED  LAND. 

On  farms  where  the  land  is  moderately  high  priced  and  a con- 
siderable area  must  be  kept  in  pasture,  or  on  farms  where  there  is 
considerable  rough  feed  that  must  be  utilized,  there  are  two  principal 
methods  that  can  be  used.  The  first  is  to  buy  calves  or  yearlings 
and  either  raise  them  to  maturity  or,  if  of  extra  good  quality,  feed 
as  baby  beef.  The  second  is  to  maintain  breeding  herds  and  raise 
baby  beef. 


16 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  588. 


GROWING  AND  FINISHING  CATTLE. 

An  excellent  plan  for  utilizing  the  rough  feeds  and  also  avoiding 
competition  in  buying  feeders  is  to  buy  calves  and  yearlings  and 
raise  them.  These  cattle  can  he  roughed  through  the  first  winter  at 
a moderate  cost  and  run  on  pasture  during  the  summer.  They  can 
be  fed  out  the  following  winter  or  carried  through  on  cheap  feeds 
until  the  next  summer  and  fattened  on  pasture. 

A good  example  of  the  utilization  of  rough  feeds  is  shown  in  the 
methods  used  on  a 900-acre  farm  in  northwestern  Missouri.  The 
owner  is  primarily  a corn  grower  and  hog  raiser,  usually  raising  from 
150  to  200  hogs  annually,  which  are  sold  when  they  weigh  from  200 
to  300  pounds  each.  This  farmer  considers  it  necessary  to  handle 
cattle  to  use  the  rough  feeds  and  a considerable  area  of  pasture 
land  to  the  best  advantage.  He  usually  buys  a carload  of  good 
Texas  calves  each  faU.  The  calves  are  run  on  pasture  for  a few 
days  and  then  turned  into  the  corn  fields,  where  they  graze  on  stalks 
until  the  bad  weather  begins.  In  winter  they  are  fed  on  straw, 
damaged  hay,  and  soy-bean  meal,  and  are  given  the  run  of  a timbered 
pasture  for  exercise  and  shelter.  He  raises  the  soy  beans  and  feeds 
each  calf  a ration  of  2 pounds  of  soy-bean  meal  a day.  It  would 
probably  have  been  more  profitable,  however,  to  cut  the  soy  beans 
for  hay  than  to  permit  the  beans  to  mature  enough  for  thrashing 
and  grinding,  as  most  of  the  leaves  are  lost  by  the  latter  method, 
and  soy-bean  leaves  have  as  great  a feeding  value  as  wheat  bran. 

After  May  1 the  grain  is  discontinued  and  the  cattle  are  turned  on 
blue-grass  pasture,  where  they  remain  until  fall.  In  the  fall  he  has 
the  option  of  selling  them  as  feeders,  fattening  them  at  once,  or 
carrying  them  over  another  year.  The  plan  adopted  is  determined 
by  the  available  supply  of  roughage  and  corn,  the  price  of  these 
commodities,  the  quality  and  condition  of  the  animals  themselves, 
and  the  market  outlook. 

BABY  BEEF. 

The  raising  of  baby  beef  can  be  most  safely  practiced  on  those 
farms  where  there  is  a large  amount  of  pasture  and  an  abundance  of 
roughage.  It  is  not  as  well  adapted  to  intensive  farming  as  the 
feeding  of  heavier  cattle,  and  should  not  be  attempted  on  a large 
scale  except  by  experienced  feeders. 

The  number  of  animals  that  can  be  handled  will  usually  depend  on 
the  area  of  available  grazing  land,  and  the  size  of  the  breeding  herd 
should  be  based  on  this  factor.  Ordinarily  some  other  form  of  live 
stock  should  be  kept  in  conjunction  with  the  cattle.  If  there  is  a 
considerable  area  of  tilled  land  hogs  can  be  raised  or  older  cattle  can 
be  handled  in  addition.  When  the  land  is  chiefly  adapted  for  grazing, 
a few  sheep  can  be  advantageously  run  to  utilize  those  feeds  that  the 


ECONOMICAL  CATTLE  FEEDING  IN  THE  CORN  BELT. 


17 


cattle  do  not  relish,  care  being  taken  not  to  overstock  the  pastures 
or  to  run  the  sheep  with  the  fattening  animals. 

Only  well-bred  cattle  can  be  prohtably  fattened  as  baby  beef;  it 
is  therefore  essential  that  the  cows  be  high-grade  animals,  and  that 
pure-bred  sires  be  used.  This  is  because  young  animals  have  a 
tendency  to  grow,  and  unless  they  have  been  carefully  bred  for  beef 
purposes  it  is  impossible  to  get  them  to  fatten  properly.  Although 
heavy  cattle  can  be  marketed  before  they  are  finished,  baby  beef 
must  be  prime  in  order  to  hnd  a ready  sale. 

Calves  intended  for  baby  beef  should  be  kept  growing  continuously 
and  should  never  be  allowed  to  lose  their  calf  fat.  They  should  be 
accustomed  to  eat  grain  before  they  are  weaned,  and  during  the  winter 
should  be  fed  plenty  of  grain,  clover  hay,  and  silage,  if  it  is  available. 
The  latter  is  an  excellent  appetizer,  and  calves  do  exceedingly  well 
when  this  succulence  makes  up  a part  of  their  ration. 

There  is  danger  of  losing  good  calves  from  blackleg,  as  this  disease 
seems  to  affect  calves  which  are  in  good  flesh.  This  risk  may  be 
eliminated  by  vaccinating  the  calves  at  an  early  age.  Vaccinating 
material  may  be  secured  free  of  charge  from  the  Pathological  Division 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  by  anyone  who  will 
agree  to  submit  a report  of  the  results  secured  by  vaccinating.  As 
the  vaccine  is  easily  administered  and  remarkable  results  have  been 
obtained  from  its  use,  no  farmer  should  fail  to  vaccinate  his  calves 
if  blackleg  is  prevalent  in  his  community  or  if  there  have  been  deaths 
from  blackleg  on  his  premises  within  recent  years. 

HOGS  FOLLOWING  CATTLE. 

All  of  the  above  systems  of  feeding  presuppose  that  hogs  follow 
the  fattening  cattle.  It  is  more  profitable  to  follow  cattle  with 
hogs,  except  possibly  when  young  cattle  are  fed  on  ground  corn  in 
large  numbers  and  the  cost  of  grinding  is  very  low.  In  fact,  the  best 
authorities  beheve  that  with  the  present  narrow  margin  for  fat  cattle 
it  is  inadvisable  to  feed  without  hogs.  The  cost  accounting  records 
kept  in  Iowa,  previously  referred  to  on  page  7,  tend  to  bear  out  this 
belief.  When  the  steers  sell  for  enough  to  break  even,  or  if  they 
show  a slight  loss,  the  hogs  that  follow  will  ordinarily  make  sufficient 
gains  from  the  wasted  corn  to  make  the  feeding  operations  profit- 
able. Not  only  is  steer  feeding  more  profitable  when  hogs  are  used, 
but  the  hogs  usually  prove  more  remunerative  than  if  fed  alone, 
because  of  the  large  amount  of  feed  they  secure  from  the  droppings. 

The  best  type  of  hog  to  run  behind  cattle  is  a thrifty  shoat  weighing 
about  100  pounds,  somewhat  thin,  and  consequently  in  good  condi- 
tion to  utilize  the  corn.  Heavy,  nearly  finished  hogs  are  not  profit- 
able behind  steers  and  should  be  placed  by  themselves.  Young  pigs 


18 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  588. 


are  objectionable,  because  of  the  danger  of  being  injured  by  tbe  steers 
and  because  the  feed  obtained  from  the  dro])pings  is  not  adapted  for 
them,  as  they  reciuire  more  protein. 

The  number  of  hogs  to  follow  a steer  will  depend  on  the  metliod  of 
feeding.  Some  farmers  feed  the  steers  more  corn  than  they  will  eat 
and  run  extra  hogs,  figuring  on  the  hogs  getting  the  waste.  Wliile 
this  may  be  a good  policy  when  corn  is  cheap,  it  is  doubtful  if  it 
should  be  practiced  with  high-priced  grain.  It  is  usually  best  to 
figure  on  about  one  shoat  per  steer  when  shelled  corn  is  fed  and  two 
when  ear  corn  is  fed.  In  case  the  corn  is  ground  or  soaked,  or  silage 
is  used,  the  number  of  hogs  would  be  less.  The  aim  should  be  to 
run  enough  hogs  to  clean  up  all  the  waste  corn. 

The  daily  gains  that  the  hogs  make  will  depend  materially  on  the 
condition  of  the  feed  yard.  They  will  also  be  affected  by  the  quan- 


Fig.  6. — Typical  feeding  plant  in  Central  Illinois.  The  hogs  ai’e  fed  extra  corn  in  a separate  yard. 

tity  of  grain  given  and  the  form  in  which  it  is  fed.  In  general,  it  is 
probable  that  when  a steer  is  fed  one-third  of  a bushel  of  shelled  corn 
a day,  approximately  three-fourths  of  a pound  of  pork  will  be  ob- 
tained. When  ear  corn  is  fed  the  gains  will  be  greater.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  corn  meal  or  corn-and-cob  meal  is  fed  the  amount  of  pork 
produced  is  very  small,  as  the  grain  is  much  better  utilized  by  cattle. 
In  fact,  experience  and  experimental  evidence  show  that  when  corn 
is  most  efTicient  for  steers  it  is  least  so  for  hogs,  and  vice  versa. 

The  gain  will  be  greater  if  the  steers  are  fed  some  leguminous  hay 
or  some  concentrate  high  in  protein,  such  as  oil  cake.  Nearly  all 
farmers  give  the  hogs  corn  in  addition  to  that  secured  from  the 
drop])ings.  Corn  for  the  hogs  should  always  be  fed  away  from  the 
cattle  and  shoidd  usually  be  given  first,  so  that  the  steers  may  not 


ECONOMICAL  CATTLE  FEEDIN(i  IN  THE  CORN  BELT. 


19 


be  annoyed.  The  hogs  should  also  be  provided  with  separate  water- 
ing places  and  separate  places  to  lie  down. 

SHRINKAGE  IN  SHIPPING  TO  MARKET.^ 

The  shrinkage  in  weight  varies  according  to  distance  shipped,  the 
preparation  of  the  cattle,  size  of  the  cattle,  and  numerous  other 
factors,  and  is  therefore  hard  to  estimate  accurately.  The  shrinkage 
in  shipping  cattle  from  Iowa  to  Chicago,  or  from  points  in  Kansas  to 
Kansas  City,  would  be  from  to  5 per  cent  of  their  live  weight, 
with  an  average  of  about  4 per  cent. 

When  cattle  are  sold  at  home  they  are  usually  held  for  12  hours 
without  feed  or  water  before  weighing  or  are  weighed  direct  from  the 
feed  lot  and  a 4 per  cent  shrinkage  deducted.  The  shrinkage  in 
shipping  is  usually  very  little  in  excess  of  this  amount.  The  feeder 
should  therefore  count  on  about  4 per  cent  shrinkage  on  the  finished 
animal  when  considering  the  cost  of  feeding. 

1 For  a full  discussion  of  this  subject  see  Bulletin  25  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  entitled 
"The  Shrinkage  in  Weight  of  Beef  Cattle  in  Transit.” 

O 


WASHINGTON  ; GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


U.S.DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


689 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  A,  D.  Melvin,  Chief. 

July  21,  1914. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 

I^y  Helmer  Rabili),  A.  K.  Risser,  and  K.  E.  Parks,  of  the  Dairy  Division. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Green  corn  was  first  jireserved  for  winter  feeding  in  the  United  States 
by  Prof.  Manly  Miles,  of  Lansing,  Mich.,  in  1875.^  He  used  shallow 
pits  8 inches  deep  into  which  he  heaped  the  cut  corn  and  then  covered 
it  with  earth.  Francis  Morris,  of  Maryland,  is  said  to  have  built  a 
silo  in  187G,  and  J.  M.  Bailey,  of  Massachusetts,  one  in  1879. 

Sdo  construction  has  undergone  a great  change  since  the  first  ones 
were  built.  All  the  early  silos  were  built  in  the  ground,  while  the 
modern  silos  are  constructed  almost  entirely  above  the  ground. 
Besides  this,  the  first  silos  were  comparatively  shallow  structures, 
which  resulted  in  a large  amount  of  spoiled  silage  on  account  of  lack 
of  suflicient  pressure. 

Since  about  the  year  1880  silos  have  increased  rapidly  in  number 
in  the  United  States,  until  now  they  are  extensively  used,  especially 
in  those  regions  devoted  to  the  dairy  industry.  So  useful  have 
silos  become  that  many  farmers  consider  them  indispensable.  The 
demand  for  literature  on  silos  has  likewise  increased.  This  bulletin 
has  been  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  partly  meeting  this  demand 
by  furnishing  such  information  as  will  enable  the  farmer  to  con- 
struct his  own  silo  at  a reasonable  cost. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

ADAPTABILITY  OF  THE  SILO. 

The  silo  is  adapted  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States  where  corn  or 
the  sorghums  can  be  successfully  grown.  Its  use  at  present  is  confined 
principally  to  farms  where  cattle  are  kept,  although  silage  is  a good 
and  cheap  feed  for  both  sheep  and  horses.^  Dairy  farmers  especially 

1 Country  Gentleman,  October  5,  1876,  page  628. 

2 See  Farmers’  Bulletin  578,  “The  Making  and  Feeding  of  Silage.” 

Note. — This  bulletin  gives  detailed  instructions  for  building  three  types  of  silos,  namely,  concrete, 
stave,  and  the  modified  Wisconsin  silo.  The  part  relating  to  the  stave  silo  is  a revision  of  Bureau  of 
Animai  Industry  Circular  136,  by  B.  H.  Rawl  and  J.  A.  Conover. 

40084°— Bull.  589—14 1 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


have  appreciated  the  value  of  silage  as  a milk  producer.  To  make 
the  silo  a profitable  investment,  however,  a man  should  have  at  least 
10  cows  or  the  equivalent  of  this  number  in  other  stock.  With  a num- 
ber fewer  than  this  the  relative  cost  of  the  silo  and  the  silo-filling 
machinery  becomes  excessive;  besides  it  is  not  usually  feasible  to 
build  a silo  small  enough  to  accomodate  fewer  than  10  head. 

KIND  OF  SILO  TO  BUILD. 

After  a person  has  decided  to  put  up  a silo,  the  next  ({uestion  is. 
What  kind  of  a sdo  shall  it  be  ? Several  factors  will  enter  into  this 
consideration,  chief  among  which  are  cost  and  durability.  On 
account  of  lack  of  space  only  three  of  the  most  common  and  approved 
types  of  silos  wih  be  discussed  in  detail  here,  namely,  the  concrete,  the 
stave,  and  the  modified  Wisconsin  silos.  The  concrete  silo,  as  the 
name  implies,  is  built  entirely  of  concrete;  the  stave  silo  is  built  of 
long  2 by  4 or  2 by  6 material,  set  vertically  like  the  staves  of  a wooden 
tank;  the  modified  Wisconsin  silo  is  built  of  three-eighths  or  one-half 
inch  boards  nailed  laterally  on  the  inside  of  studding  placed  in  the 
form  of  a circle.  All  these  will  preserve  silage  equally  well. 

THE  THREE  COMMON  TYPES. 

Concrete  silos. — The  concrete  silo  has  the  advantage  of  the  other 
two  in  permanency  and  stability.  A well-constructed  concrete  silo 
will  last  indefinitely ; there  is  no  danger  of  its  blowing  or  burning  down, 
rotting  out,  or  being  attacked  by  vermin.  For  the  man  who  wants  a 
silo  for  a considerable  number  of  years  and  who  can  obtain  materials 
for  concrete  at  a reasonable  cost  the  concrete  silo  is  advisable.  The 
necessary  repairs  are  reduced  to  a minimum,  the  first  expense  being 
practically  the  only  expense.  Little  attention  is  required  to  keep  the 
structure  in  good  condition.  The  chief  objection  to  the  concrete  silo 
is  its  cost.  It  is  more  expensive,  as  a rule,  than  either  of  the  other 
two  types. 

The  stave  silo. — The  stave  or  tub  silos  have  become  very  popular  in 
late  years  because  of  the  cheapness,  ease,  and  quickness  with  which 
they  are  constructed.  Generally  speaking,  the  stave  silo  excels  in 
these  three  particulars,  although  there  may  be  sections  of  the  country 
where  sand  and  gravel  may  be  obtained  at  a nominal  cost  and  where 
the  price  of  lumber  is  excessive.  Under  such  conditions  the  concrete 
type  may  be  the  cheaper.  Manufacturing  firms  have  made  a specialty 
of  stave  silos  and  have  pushed  their  sale;  as  a consequence  such  silos 
are  more  numerous  in  the  United  States  to-day  than  any  other  type. 

Stave  silos,  however,  are  temporary  structures,  since  they  last  only 
from  5 to  15  years,  depending  upon  the  kind  and  quality  of  lumber 
used,  the  care  and  the  construction  of  the  silo,  and  the  climate. 
Tliey  are  more  liable  to  blow  down,  fall  down,  or  otherwise  get  out 
of  repair  than  either  of  the  other  types  of  silos. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


3 


The  modified  Wisconsin  silo. — It  sometimes  happens  in  certain 
sections  that  it  is  inconvenient  to  secure  hoops  or  lugs  for  a stave 
silo.  Under  such  conditions  the  modified  Wisconsin  type  is  to  be 
recommended.  The  modified  Wisconsin  silo  is  more  substantial 
than  the  stave  silo;  that  is,  it  is  not  so  liable  to  be  blown  down  or  to 
get  out  of  repair  through  drying.  It  does  not  need  so  much  atten- 
tion. In  case  some  parts  of  the  walls  rot  out  they  can  be  more 
easily  repaired  than  those  of  a stave  silo.  Another  advantage  of 
this  type  over  the  stave  silo  is  that  carpenters  as  a rule  take  hold  of 
the  work  of  construction  more  readily.  They  seem  to  have  a better 
idea  as  to  just  how  to  go  about  putting  up  this  kind  of  a structure. 

There  are  two  serious  objections  to  the  modified  Wisconsin  silo. 
One  is  that  a silo  less  than  14  feet  in  diameter  is  very  hard  to  build, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  in  bending  the  sheathing.  Another  is  the 
unfinished  appearance  of  the  structure. 

Cost  of  construction. — The  cost  of  the  above-mentioned  silos  will 
depend  so  much  upon  their  size  and  on  the  price  of  material  and  labor 
that  no  definite  amounts  can  be  assigned  which  would  be  applicable 
to  all  conditions.  Recent  data  on  the  cost  of  homemade  silos 
collected  by  the  Dairy  Division  from  all  parts  of  the  country  show 
the  following  relative  cost  of  the  three  types: 


Cost  of  silos. 


Type  of  silo. 

Number 
of  silos. 

Average 

capacity. 

Average 

cost. 

Average 
cost  per 
con  ca- 
pacity. 

Concrete: 

100  tons  or  less 

71 

Tons. 

71 

$220.  47 

$3. 10 

101  to  200  tons 

50 

135 

348.  68 
446*.  42 

2.59 

More  than  200  tons 

23 

219 

2. 04 

Total  concrete 

144 

117 

301. 08 

2.58 

Modified  Wisconsin 

8 

116 

186.  52 

1.61 

Stave: 

100  tons  or  less 

25 

63 

118.  40 

1.87 

Over  100  tons 

16 

129 

187. 46 

1.45 

Total  stave 

41 

89 

145.35 

1.  63 

Plans  for  the  above  silos  were  furnished  by  the  Dairy  Division, 
and  frequently  a representative  of  the  division  assisted  in  laying  out 
the  foundation  and  getting  the  building  underway.  The  figures 
given  will  serve  to  show  in  a general  way  the  cost  of  the  three  types 
of  silos. 

OTHER  TYPES  OP  SILOS. 

Other  less  common  kinds  of  silos  are  the  Gurler,  the  Iowa,  and 
brick  and  stone  silos. 

The  Gurler. — The  construction  of  this  silo  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
Wisconsin,  the  main  difference  being  that  the  inner  lining  of  wood 


4 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


in  the  Wisconsin  type  is  replaced  by  a coating  of  lath  and  cement 
plaster.  Its  principal  fault  is  that  owing  to  lack  of  rigidity  the 
concrete  lining  may  crack  and  admit  air. 

The  Iowa. — This  silo  is  constructed  of  hollow  tile  blocks  reinforced 
with  steel.  The  air  space  provides  some  protection  against  the  freez- 
ing of  the  silage.  It  is  apparently  a durable  and  substantial  struc- 
ture. This  silo  has  been  in  use  only  a few  years,  so  it  would  be 
difficult  to  say  at  this  time  just  how  it  compares  with  the  other  types. 
It  is  probable  that  if  good  tiles  adapted  for  the  purpose  can  be  secured 
at  a reasonable  price  this  silo  will  come  into  more  general  use. 

Brick  and  stone  silos. — These  silos  have  been  used  to  some  extent, 
and  with  much  satisfaction  when  properly  constructed.  They  are, 
however,  expensive  and  have  nothing  to  recommend  them  as  com- 
pared with  concrete.  The  tendency  seems  to  be  away  from  rather 
than  toward  brick  and  stone  silos. 

ESSENTIAL  FEATURES  IN  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SILOS. 

There  are  some  features  which  are  essential  to  the  construction  of 
all  silos  and  without  which  silage  will  not  be  kept  in  perfect  condition. 

1 . The  walls  should  be  air-tight.  Since  the  keeping  of  silage  depends 
upon  the  exclusion  of  air  it  is  imperative  that  the  walls  of  the  silo  be 
built  in  such  a way  as  to  keep  out  the  air.  The  lumber  should  be 
well  matched,  and  that  containing  large  knots  should  be  rejected.  In 
concrete  silos  a wash  on  the  inside  with  cement  or  with  raw  coal  tar 
thinned  with  gasoline  is  effective  in  making  the  walls  impervious  to 
air.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  doors  fit  closely  into  their  frames. 

2.  The  walls  should  be  smooth  and  plumb  so  that  the  silage  will  not 
adhere  to  them  in  settling  and  thus  cause  air  spaces  in  the  outer  edge 
of  the  silage.  Furthermore,  the  walls  should  be  capable  of  standing 
considerable  lateral  strain  without  cracking  or  bulging.  This  is  one 
reason  why  rectangular  silos  are  unsuccessful. 

3.  The  silo  must  be  deep  enough  so  that  the  pressure  from  above 
will  thoroughly  pack  the  silage  and  force  out  the  air.  The  greater 
the  pressure  the  less  air  is  left  in  the  silo  and  the  less  will  be  the  loss  of 
food  materials  by  fermentation. 

4.  The  only  form  of  silo  to  be  recommended  is  one  which  is  round. 
This  form  is  the  cheapest,  capacity  considered,  and  the  walls  are  more 
rigid  than  those  of  the  rectangular  or  octagonal  forms.  This  results 
in  more  perfect  preservation  of  the  silage. 

THE  LOCATION  OF  THE  SILO. 

The  silo  should  be  placed  outside  rather  than  inside  the  barn.  As 
a silo  ordinarily  does  not  need  the  protection  of  a barn,  it  is  not  eco- 
nomical to  use  barn  space  for  this  purpose.  An  exception  to  this  rule 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


5 


may  bo  mado  in  the  case  of  the  round  barn.  A silo  in  the  middle  of  a 
round  harn  serves  to  support  the  superstructure  as  well  as  to  ])lace 
the  silage  in  a position  for  convenient  feeding.  A silo  so  ])laced,  how- 
ever, is  liable  to  be  very  inconvenient  to  fill.  The  most  popular  loca- 
tion is  not  more  than  a few  feet  from  the  harn  and  opening  into  a sepa- 
rate feeding  room.  The  door  of  the  barn  can  then  be  closed  and  the 
silage  odors  kept  out  of  the  stable  at  milking  time. 

The  silo  should  not  be  built  in  the  ground  so  deeply  as  to  make  it 
necessary  to  lift  the  silage  more  than  5 feet  in  getting  it  out  from  the 
bottom.  In  other  words,  the  bottom  should  not  be  more  than  5 feet 
below  the  lowest  door. 

THE  SIZE  AND  CAPACITY  OF  THE  SILO. 

J)ia7neter. — The  diameter  of  the  silo  will  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  silage  to  be  fed  daily.  The  silage  should  be  removed  from  the  top 
at  the  rate  of  1^  to  8 inches  per  day,  depending  upon  climatic  condi- 
tions. The  warmer  the  weather  the  more  silage  must  be  removed 
from  the  surface  daily  in  order  to  ])revent  spoiling.  For  the  winter- 
feeding season  it  is  safer  to  figure  upon  removing  2 inches  daily  rather 
than  a smaller  amount.  A common  error  in  building  is  to  make  the 
diameter  too  large  for  the  size  of  the  herd.  The  weight  of  a cubic 
foot  of  silage  varies  according  to  the  pressure  to  which  it  is  subjected, 
but  in  a silo  30  feet  deep  it  will  average  about  40  pounds.  So,  by 
knowing  the  amount  of  silage  to  be  fed  daily,  it  is  possible  to  estimate 
what  the  diameter  of  the  silo  should  be  to  permit  the  removal  of  a 
certain  number  of  inches  in  depth  each  day.  The  following  table 
will  show  the  proper  diameter  of  the  silo  for  herds  of  different  sizes 
to  be  fed  different  amounts  for  winter  feeding,  when  2 inches  of  silage 
are  removed  daily: 

Relation  of  size  of  herd  to  diameter  of  silo  for  winter  feeding  (on  basis  of  40  pounds  of  silage 

per  cubic  foot). 


Inside 
diameter 
of  silo. 

Quantity 
of  silage 

Number  of  animals  that  may  be  fed 
allowing— 

in  depth 
of  2 inches 

40  pounds 
per  head. 

30  pounds 
per  head. 

20  pounds 
per  head. 

15  pounds 
per  head. 

Feet. 

10 

Pounds. 

524 

i 

t 13 

17 

26 

35 

11 

634 

16 

21 

31 

42 

12 

754 

; 19 

25 

37 

50 

13 

885 

22 

29 

44 

59 

14 

1,026 

25 

34 

51 

68 

15 

1,178 

29 

39 

59 

78 

16 

1,340 

33 

44 

67 

89 

17 

1,513 

38 

50 

75 

101 

18 

1,696 

42 

56 

85 

113 

20 

2,094 

52 

70 

i 

104 

1 139 

6 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


A 900-pound  cow  will  ordinarily  consume  30  pounds  of  silage  a 
day;  a 1,200-pound  cow  about  40  pounds.  Yearlings  will  eat  about 
one-half  as  much  as  mature  animals;  fattening  cattle,  25  to  35  pounds 
for  each  1,000  pounds  live  weight.  Asheepwill  take  about  one-eighth 
as  much  as  a cow.  Horses  should  be  limited  to  15  or  20  pounds  daily. 

The  practice  of  using  silage  to  supplement  pastures  during  the  sum^- 
mer  droughts  and  in  the  early  fall,  instead  of  soiling  crops,  is  becom- 
ing more  general  and  it  should  be  encouraged.  For  such  feeding  the 
daily  ration  per  cow  may  be  as  low  as  10  pounds,  depending  upon  the 
amount  and  quality  of  pasture  or  other  succulent  feeds  available. 
For  the  same  herd  the  silo  for  summer  feeding  should  be  of  smaller 
diameter  than  the  one  used  for  winter  feeding,  since  3 inches  instead 
of  2 are  to  be  removed  daily.  In  order  to  provide  for  this  summer 
feeding  an  additional  silo  of  smaller  diameter  should  be  constructed. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relation  between  the  size  of  the 
herd  and  the  diameter  of  the  silo  when  3 inches  of  silage  are 
removed  daily: 

Relation  of  size  of  herd  to  diameter  of  silo  for  summer  feeding  {on  basis  of  40  -pounds  of 

silage  per  cubic  foot). 


Inside 
diameter 
of  silo. 

Quantity 
of  silage  in 

Number  of  animals  that  may  be  fed 
allowing— 

depth  of 

3 inches. 

40  pounds 
per  head. 

30  pounds 
per  head. 

20  pounds 
per  head. 

15  pounds 
per  head. 

Feet. 

10 

Pounds. 

785 

19 

26 

39 

52 

11 

950 

23 

31 

47 

63 

12 

1,131 

28 

37 

56 

75 

13 

1,327 

33 

44 

66 

88 

14 

1,539 

38 

51 

77 

102 

15 

1,767 

44 

59 

88 

118 

16 

2,011 

50 

67 

100 

134 

DeRtli. — After  the  diameter  of  the  silo  has  been  decided  upon,  the 
next  consideration  is  the  number  of  tons  of  silage  that  will  be  required, 
and  this  is  governed  by  the  length  of  the  silage-feeding  season.  When 
the  number  of  tons  and  the  diameter  have  been  fixed  upon,  a reference 
to  the  table  below  indicates  what  the  depth  of  the  silage  should 
be.  For  example,  if  the  diameter  is  14  feet  and  the  capacity 
100  tons,  the  depth  of  silage  after  settling  for  two  days  should  be  32 
feet.  An  allowance  of  4 to  6 feet  must  be  made  for  settling  in  a silo 
30  or  more  feet  deep,  so  that  the  height  of  the  silo  in  this  instance 
from  the  floor  to  the  plate  should  be  36  to  38  feet. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


7 


Depth  of  silage  {after  settling)  for  a given  capacity  of  silo  with  a given  diameter} 


Depth  of 
silage 
(after 
settling). 

Capacity  of  silo  having  an  inside  diameter  of— 

10 

feet. 

11 

feet. 

12 

feet. 

13 

feet. 

14 

feet. 

15 

feet. 

16 

feet. 

17 

feet. 

18 

feet. 

20 

feet. 

Feet. 

24 

Tons. 

34 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

26 

38 

46 

55 

28 

42 

51 

61 

71 

83 

30 

47 

56 

67 

79 

91 

105 

32 

62 

74 

86 

100 

115 

131 

34 

80 

94 

109 

126 

143 

161 

36 

87 

102 

119 

136 

155 

175 

196 

38 

no 

128 

147 

167 

189 

212 

261 

40 

138 

158 

180 

203 

228 

281 

42 

1 

170 

193 

218 

245 

302 

44 

207 

234 

262 

323 

46 

250 

280 

345 

48 

1 

368 

1 

1 These  figures  were  taken  in  part  from  King’s  Physics  of  Agriculture,  page  424. 


In  general,  the  depth  of  the  silo  should  not  be  less  than  twice  nor 
more  than  three  times  the  diameter.  The  greater  the  depth  the 
better  the  silage,  on  account  of  the  pressure  from  above.  If  less 
than  24  feet  in  height  the  quality  of  silage  will  not  be  the  best. 
A very  great  height,  however,  is  to  be  avoided  on  account  of  the 
excessive  amount  of  power  required  to  elevate  the  cut  corn  into  the 
silo. 

FOUNDATION. 

The  foundation  of  the  silo  should  receive  special  consideration, 
since  a large  proportion  of  the  silage  as  well  as  the  weight  of  the  walls 
must  be  supported  by  the  foundation.  It  has  always  been  assumed 
that  the  foundation  supports  only  the  walls  of  the  silo,  but  recent 
investigations  have  shown  this  idea  to  be  erroneous.  The  founda- 
tion should  have  its  base  on  firm  soil,  and  it  should  extend  below 
frost  line.  In  the  North  this  will  require  that  it  be  placed  4 feet  or 
more  below  the  surface  of  the  ground;  in  the  South  2 feet  will  ordi- 
narily be  sufficient.  The  dimensions  of  the  foundation  wall  will 
depend  primarily  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  in  which  it  is  located 
and  the  size  of  the  silo.  The  base  of  the  foundation  must  be  wider 
in  loose  soils  than  in  clay  soils,  so  as  to  prevent  the  walls  from  crack- 
ing and  setthng  out  of  shape.  The  width  of  the  base  will  vary  from 
10  to  30  inches,  depending  upon  the  conditions  mentioned. 

FLOOR. 

If  the  earth  in  the  bottom  of  the  silo  is  firm  and  comparatively 
dry,  no  provision  need  be  made  for  drainage,  and  a floor  is  unnecessary. 
Still  a concrete  floor  will  make  the  silo  easier  to  clean  and  make  it 
impossible  for  rats  to  burrow  underneath  the  foundation  wall  and 
gain  access  to  the  silage.  If,  however,  the  earth  in  the  bottom  of 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  580. 


the  silo  is  inclined  to  be  seepy,  a tile  drain  should  b(‘.  laid  in  it  and 
a concrete  floor  laid  above  the  tile.  The  tiling  should  open  into  the 
floor  in  the  center,  and  the  floor  should  be  made  to  drain  to  it.  The 
tiling  should  extend  beyond  the  silo  wall  and  have  its  outlet  lower 
than  the  floor.  The  entrance  of  the  tile  drain  should  be  stopped  with 
a loose  wooden  plug  when  the  silo  is  about  to  be  filled  and  should  bo 
opened  when  the  silo  is  empty.  The  drain  will  carry  off  the  water 
which  tends  to  seep  in,  as  well  as  any  rain  water  that  may  collect 
on  the  floor  in  case  the  silo  has  no  roof. 

DOORS. 

The  doorways  have  always  been  a source  of  weakness  in  silo  con- 
struction. When  poorly  made  they  have  sometimes  let  the  silo 
crack  open  and  spread.  Ample  provision  should  therefore  be  made 
for  reinforcing  the  structure  in  the  region  of  the  doors.  The  door 
should  form  an  air-tight  joint  with  its  frame;  tar  paper  is  oftentimes 
useful  in  this  connection.  The  door  should  be  flush  with  the  inner 
wall  of  the  silo  so  that  air  pockets  will  not  form  as  the  silage  settles. 

Doors  should  be  of  such  size  as  to  permit  the  ready  entrance  of  a 
man,  and  they  should  be  close  enough  together  so  that  the  silage 
will  not  have  to  be  lifted  any  considerable  height  when  it  is  being 
removed.  The  usual  size  is  about  20  inches  wide  and  30  inches  high, 
and  the  space  between  the  doors  to  3 feet.  The  lowest  door 
should  not  be  more  than  5 feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  silo,  and  less 
than  this  is  desirable.  The  table  below  will  assist  the  builder  in 
determining  the  number  and  spacing  of  the  doors: 


Nu  mber  and  spacing  of  doors  in  silos  of  different  heights. 


Height  of 
silo  above 
founda- 
tion. 

Num,ber 
of  doors. 

i 

Height 
of  door. 

Space  be- 
tween 
doors. 

Space  be- 
low first 
door,  to 
foundation 
or  surface 
of  ground. 

Space 
above  last 
door. 

Feet. 

24 

i 4 

Feel. 

2\ 

Feel. 

31- 

Feet. 

1 

Feet. 

31 

21 

26 

5 

2i 

2i 

1 

28 

5 

2| 

3 

1 

21 

30 

6 

2\ 

21 

1 

11 

32 

6 

2i 

2f 

1 

21 

34 

6 

2i 

3 

1 

3^ 

36 

7 

2? 

2i 

1 

21 

38 

7 

2^ 

2| 

2f 

1 

3 

40 

8 

2^ 

1 

11 

42 

8 

2i 

21 

1 

31 

44 

8 

3 

1 

2 

46 

9 

n 

21 

1 

21 

48 

9 

2i 

21 

1 

21 

The  continuous  door. — Many  silos  are  now  built  with  continuous 
doors,  obstructed  only  by  the  hoops  or  bars  extending  from  side  to 
side  which  are  necessary  to  prevent  the  door  frames  from  spreading. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


9 


This  kind  of  door  is  more  convenient  for  tlie  removal  of  silage,  but  it 
is  harder  to  construct  properly. 

ROOF. 

While  a roof  is  not  essential  to  the  keeping  of  silage,  it  is  advisable 
for  several  reasons  to  equip  the  silo  with  a roof.  A roof  adds  to  the 
appearance,  life,  and  stability  of  the  silo;  it  retards  freezing;  it  keeps 
out  rain  and  snow,  making  the  work  of  removing  the  silage  more 
agreeable;  it  will  also  prevent  the  silo  from  becoming  a neighborhood 
feeding  ground  for  pigeons.  There  should  be  a door  in  the  roof  large 
enough  to  admit  the  carrier  or  blower  from  the  cutter.  A simple 
trapdoor  will  answer  the  purpose,  but  a dormer  window  with  glass 
is  preferable,  as  this  will  admit  light  and  so  make  the  use  of  a lantern 
unnecessary  when  the  silage  is  being  removed. 

CHUTE  AND  LADDER. 

A chute  should  be  built  over  the  doors  to  prevent  scattering  of 
the  silage  when  thrown  down.  This  will  make  it  possible  to  catch 
all  the  silage  in  a truck. 

A ladder  should  be  attached  to  the  sdo  at  one  side  of  the  doors  or 
on  the  chute.  Sometimes  the  reinforcing  rods  of  the  continuous  door 
can  be  used  for  a ladder. 

THE  CONCRETE  SILO. 

Concrete  silos  are  of  three  kinds — those  built  of  concrete  blocks, 
those  made  with  concrete  staves,  and  those  with  a solid  waU,  or  the 
monolithic  type.  The  only  advantage  of  the  concrete  block  silo  over 
the  monolithic  is  the  fact  that  the  walls  can  be  more  easily  built  with 
an  air  space,  which  would  tend  to  prevent  freezing.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  difference  between  the  two  walls  in  this  respect  is 
of  no  considerable  importance.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  being 
more  difficult  to  construct  and  requiring  more  expert  labor,  and  as  a 
consequence  it  generally  costs  more  to  build.  On  account  of  the 
limited  amount  of  space  in  this  bulletin  which  can  be  devoted  to  silo 
construction,  the  solid-wall  or  monolithic  type  is  the  only  one  which 
will  be  described  in  detail. 

FOUNDATION. 

To  lay  off  the  foundation,  drive  a stake  in  the  ground  at  the  center 
of  the  proposed  silo.  One  end  of  a straight  2 by  4 inch  scantling,  a 
little  longer  than  is  necessary  to  reach  from  the  center  of  the  silo  to 
the  outside  of  the  foundation  wall,  should  be  nailed  on  top  of  the 
stake  with  a 40-penny  spike.  This  spike  then  marks  the  exact  center 
of  the  silo.  From  it  measure  off  on  the  scantling  the  distance  to  the 
40084°— Bull.  589—14 2 


10 


FAKMEKS"  BULLETIN  589. 


outside  of  tlie  foundation  wall,  and  liavin^  nailed  on  a marker,  as 
shown  in  figure  1 , lay  off  the  foundation. 

Where  the  ground  on  which  the  silo  is  to  be  located  is  not  level,  the 
marker  can  be  lengthened  by  holding  a longer  hoard  against  it  (see 
fig.  2),  and  moving  it  up  or  down  to  keep  it  touching  the  ground 
while  the  scantling  is  held  level.  If  the  ground  is  very  uneven  it  may 
be  difficult  to  make  the  line  continuous,  in  which  case  points  can  be 
marked  every  few  inches  and  these  joined  afterwards. 


The  earth  inside  the  circle  must  he  excavated  to  firm  ground  l)elow 
the  frost  line.  A plumb  line  should  he  used  in  digging  the  pit  so  that 
the  walls  can  he  dug  true  to  the  mark.  Generally  the  earth  is  firm 
enough  to  stand  without  danger  of  caving,  and  may  serve  as  an 
outside  form  in  building  the  foundation.  (See  fig.  3.) 

S'pecial  footing .-  -Ti,  however,  the  dirt  caves  in,  the  foundation  can 
he  built  as  shown  in  figure  4,  in  which  case  the  pit  must  he  dug  large 


to  give  ample  room  for  placing  and  removing  the  outside  form.  Aside 
from  the  matter  of  reinforcing,  most  of  the  failures  of  concrete 
structures  have  been  due  to  insufficient  and  poor  foundations,  and 
special  care  should  be  taken  to  make  this  part  of  the  silo  secure.  If 
the  location  is  unfavorable  for  a good  foundation  and  the  silo  is  of 
very  large  capacity,  it  is  well  to  put  in  a special  footing  in  order  to 
distribute  the  weight  over  a larger  area  of  ground.  (See  fig  4.) 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


11 


MAIN  WALL  OF  SILO. 


The  main  wall  of  the  silo  is  built  0 inches  thick  throughout,  although 
for  diameters  of  12  feet  and  under  a wall  5 inches  thick  has  been  found 
sufficient.  No  modification  is  made  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  for 
top  and  bottom,  because  the  expense  of  adjusting  the  forms  for  such 
a variation  more  than  equals  the  saving  in  cost  of  materials. 

For  building  the  wall  two  circular  forms  are  needed,  one  inside  tlie 
other,  with  a 6-inch  space  between  them,  into  which  the  concrete  is 
poured.  The  forms  are  built  3 feet  high,  and  approximately  33  inches 
of  wall  can  be  built 
with  each  setting  of 
the  fo  rms.  The 
forms  are  so  con- 
structed that  after 
each  33  inches  of  the 
wall  has  been  placed 
the  forms  can  be 
loosened,  raised,  and 
placed  in  position  for 
another  33  inches  of 
wall.  In  resetting, 
the  forms  are  allowed 
to  lap  over  the  old 
wall  about  3 inches, 
which  greatly  assists 
in  getting  them  into 
proper  position. 

(See  fig.  5a). 

FORMS. 

Either  wood  or 
sheet  metal  may  be 
used  for  fonns,  but 
where  the  metal  can 
be  secured  it  is  much  to  be  preferred.  It  does  not  make  so  heavy 
a form  as  the  wood,  and  the  finished  wall  is  smoother.  Either  18, 
20,  or  22  gauge  black  or  galvanized  sheet  iron  36  inches  wide  may  be 
used.  If,  however,  the  diameter  of  the  silo  is  to  be  16  feet  or  more, 
it  has  been  found  more  practical  to  have  the  sheets  30  inches  wide, 
because  in  such  cases  one  course  around  the  silo  at  the  reduced  height 
of  wall  would  be  sufficient  for  an  average  day’s  work.  The  advantage 
of  galvanized  over  black  iron  is  that  the  form  will  last  for  a consider- 
able time,  and  can  be  used  for  a number  of  silos  of  the  same  diameter 
during  several  seasons  if  properly  cared  for. 


12 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


For  each  form  it  is  necessary  to  build  two  supporting  circles  (See 
fig.  5a)  to  which  the  sheet  iron  or  wood,  as  the  case  may  })e,  is  nailed. 


These  circles  are  built  out  of  1 by  6 inch  material,  rough  or  dressed, 
of  a length  depending  upon  the  diameter  of  the  silo  so  that  16  pieces 
will  exactly  make  the  circumference.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to 
compute  these  lengths  of  chords  for  the  various  diameters,  so  they  are 
given  below.  In  figure  6 the  chord  is  the  distance  from  A to  B. 

Table  of  chords. 


Diameter 
of  silo. 

Chord 

measure- 

ment. 

Diameter 
of  silo. 

Chord 

measure- 

ment. 

10  feet.... 

11  feet 

12  feet 

13  feet 

14  feet 

Ft.  In. 

1 Ilf 

2 1| 

2 4 

2 6f 

2 

15  feet.... 

16  feet.... 

17  feet.... 

18  feet.... 

Ft.  In. 

2 11 

3 11 

3 31 

3 6J 

t 

LAYINC  OUT  THE  TEMPLETS  EOR  SHEET-IRON  FORMS. 

Figure  6 shows  how  to  proceed  to  lay  out  the  pieces  to  be  used  as 
templets,  or  patterns,  by  which  to  cut  the  pieces  which  when  laid  end 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


13 


to  end  are  to  form  the  supporting  circles  for  the  inside  and  the  outside 
forms  when  sheet  iron  is  used.  For  this  part  of  the  work  use  the  barn 


d 


— -r — ■^=r  ^ 

— — - — c. ~ 

. — - — — 

■ ■ ' ^ 

1 1 O G)  O oQ|=h 

o o gH 

)■  . • . . , / 

Fig.  5. — Silo  form  in  position,  and  details  of  form. 

floor  or  any  clear  space  available.  If  there  is  no  convenient  place 
available,  it  will  be  advisable  to  build  the  concrete  mixing  board 
described  later,  and  use  that. 


14 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


Select  a straight  piece  of  1 by  3 inch  board  about  a foot  longer 
than  half  the  diameter  of  the  proposed  silo,  and  with  a 10-penny  nail 
tack  one  end  to  the  floor  so  that  the  slat  will  be  free  to  swing  about. 
From  this  nail  as  the  center  of  the  silo,  measure  off  on  the  slat  one-half 
the  length  of  the  inside  diameter.  Here  drive  a nail,  and  G inches 
beyond  drive  another  nail  until  the  points  extend  through  far  enough 
to  scratch  clear  marks  on  the  floor  as  the  slat  is  swung  around  on  the 
center  O,  as  shown  in  figure  G.  These  circles  represent  the  inside  and 
outside  faces  of  the  wall.  An  arc  equal  to  one-quarter  of  the  circum- 
ference will  be  suffi- 
cient. From  any 
point  which  has  been 
determined  to  be  A 
on  the  inside  arc, 
measure  off  the 
length  of  the  chord 
in  figure  G as  given 
in  the  table  of  chords 
for  the  diameter  of 
^ the  proposed  silo, 

\ and  find  point  B. 

With  a straightedge 
\ laid  through  the 

points  A and  O,  and 
\ also  through  B and 

O,  draw  short  lines 
\ on  the  floor  from  D 

to  E and  from  C to  F, 
respectively.  On 
these  lines  measure 
inward  4 inches  from 
points  A and  B,  and 

fig.  6.-Method  of  laying  out  templets.  Q j 

D.  wSimilarly  measure  outward  from  points  H and  G G inches  to 
find  the  exact  location  of  points  E and  F. 

Next  take  two  pieces  of  the  1 by  G inch  board  and  lay  one  of  them 
on  the  arc  with  the  inside  edge  flush  with  points  C and  D,  as  shown 
in  figure  G.  Lay  the  other  on  the  outside  arc  with  the  outside  edge 
flush  with  points  E and  F.  With  several  small  nails  tack  them  to 
the  floor.  Next  lay  off  the  arcs  again  on  these  pieces,  and  with  the 
straightedge  re-mark  lines  DE  and  CF.  The  pieces  are  now  ready  to 
be  taken  up  and  sawed.  The  resulting  patterns,  or  templets,  will 
serve  to  mark  out  the  G4  pieces  necessary  to  build  the  two  inside 
circles  and  the  G4  pieces  to  build  the  two  outside  circles. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


15 


Tlie  curved  pieces  can  be  sawed  by  hand,  but  if  there  is  a mill  or 
shop  convenient  that  is  equipped  vdth  a band  saw,  it  will  hasten  and 
generally  cheapen  the  job  to  have  it  done  there. 

liAYrN(J  OTTT  THE  TEMPEETS  FOR  WOODEN  FORMS. 

' If  the  sheet  iron  for  metal  forms  can  not  be  obtained,  or  if  for  any 
other  reason  it  becomes  necessary  to  build  wooden  forms,  then  1-inch 
flooring  3 inches  wide  and  3 feet  long  nailed  on  these  supporting  cir- 
cles may  take  the  place  of  the  sheet  iron.  In  working  out  the  tem- 
plets for  wooden  forms  the  nail  used  for  marking  off  the  inside  circum- 
ference is  driven  1 inch  nearer  the  center  to  allow  for  the  thickness  of 
the  flooring  which  is  nailed  on  the  circles  instead  of  the  sheet  iron. 


Fig.  7. — A wooden  form  for  a concrete  silo. 


In  other  words,  the  inner  circle  is  described  1 inch  nearer  the  center 
and  the  outer  circle  1 inch  farther  away  from  the  center  in  order  to 
allow  for  the  thickness  of  the  flooring.  As  shown  in  figure  7,  the  cir- 
cles are  raised  one  above  the  other,  26  inches  apart,  and  the  flooring 
is  nailed  on  vertically  with  8-penny  nails.  Before  the  flooring  is. 
nailed  on  it  should  be  thoroughly  soaked  in  water  to  prevent  buckling 
later.  Lugs  are  used  similar  to  those  used  for  sheet-iron  forms. 
(wSee  fig.  7.)  Instead  of  riveting  these  lugs  on  the  side,  they  are  fas- 
tened on  top  of  the  circles  with  screws. 

When  these  wooden  forms  are  used,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
they  are  heavy  when  soaked  with  water,  and  the  scaffold  must  be 
built  stronger  accordingly. 


16 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


BUILDINf}  THE  CIRCLES. 

As  shown  in  figure  7,  each  of  the  supporting  circles  is  built  two-ply, 
that  is,  the  pieces  are  lapped  so  as  to  break  joints.  After  cutting 
four  or  five  pieces,  lay  them  out  on  the  circle,  so  as  to  make  sure  they 
fit  the  curve.  Before  starting  to  nail  the  pieces  together,  mark  out 
the  whole  circumference  on  the  floor  or  on  a level  piece  of  ground 
with  the  slat  as  shown  in  figure  6,  and  build  the  circles  accurately 
by  laying  the  pieces  flush  with  the  mark.  It  is  important  that  the 
circles  be  well  nailed  with  8-penny  nails  driven  through  and  clinched. 
While  the  circles  are  being  built,  approximate  points  of  division  into 
quarter  circles  can  be  marked,  and  those  pieces  nailed  sparingly  until 
after  the  circle  is  completed.  It  is  generally  safer  to  build  the  circles 
complete  and  then  divide  into  quarter  sections  rather  than  to  build 
each  quarter  separately.  This  division  into  parts  is  for  the  purpose 
of  loosening  and  resetting  the  forms. 

DIVIDING  THE  CIRCLE  INTO  QUARTER  SECTIONS. 

Remove  the  nails  in  one  half  of  every  fourth  piece  in  the  top  layer 
of  each  circle.  This  will  divide  each  circle  into  four  equal  parts,  with 
lapped  joints. 

BUILDING  THE  INSIDE  FORM. 

A hole  1 inch  wide  and  3 inches  long  should  now  be  cut  through 
both  layers  in  the  center  of  each  joint.  (See  fig.  56.)  These  holes 
are  provided  for  wedges  which  are  used  in  fitting  or  releasing  the 
forms  from  the  wall.  The  ends  of  the  quarter  sections  should  then 
be  cut  off  at  the  outer  edges  of  the  wedge  holes.  This  will  allow  the 
sections  to  slide  together  when  they  are  to  be  removed  from  the  wall. 

When  aU  the  wedge  holes  have  been  cut  and  the  work  of  dividing 
into  quarter  sections  is  complete,  temporarily  nail  the  quarter  sec- 
tions together  at  points  of  division  and  brace  the  top  circle  directly 
over  and  32  inches  above  the  lower  one.  See  that  both  circles  are 
perfectly  level  and  that  the  joints  in  the  upper  circle  are  directly 
above  the  joints  in  the  lower  circle,  and  then  proceed  to  nail  in 
securely,  between  the  top  and  bottom  circles,  1 by  3 inch  studding, 
32  inches  long,  placing  the  studs  carefuUy  plumbed  from  12  to  18 
inches  apart,  as  shown  in  figure  5a,  to  keep  the  iron  from  bulging. 

In  nailing  on  the  sheet  iron  use  6-penny  nails,  and  nail  securely. 
Before  starting  to  nail  on  the  iron,  however,  see  that  it  is  cut  to  the 
proper  length.  The  sheet  for  each  quarter  section  should  be  just  3 
inches  longer  than  one-quarter  of  the  circumference.  If  several 
sheets  are  required  to  make  a single  quarter  section,  they  should  be 
carefully  riveted  together  with  a double  row  of  flat-headed  rivets. 
Since  the  (piarter  sections  lap  3 inches,  and  in  removing  need  to  slide 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


17 


together  several  inches  farther,  it  is  necessary  to  leave  one  end  of  the 
sheets  loose  8 to  10  inches  from  the  end,  while  at  the  other  end  it 
should  be  nailed  aU  the  way. 

edges  for  inside  form. — The  wedges  should  be  of  hardwood,  8 to 
10  inches  long,  2 inches  wide  at  the  narrow  end  and  4 to  5 inches  at 
the  other.  In  order  to  make  the  wedges  drive  true  and  hold,  it  is 
necessary  to  put  in  loose  blocks,  as  shown  in  figure  ba  and  bh. 

BUILDING  THE  OUTSIDE  EORM. 

The  outside  circles  are  built  up  and  divided  into  ipiarter  sections 
just  as  arc  the  inside  circles,  but  no  provision  is  made  for  wedges. 
The  sheet  iron  is  made  up  into  quarter  sections,  3 niches  longer  than 
one-quarter  of  the  outside  circumference,  to  provide  for  the  lap. 

Lugs  and  holts  for  outside  form. — The  quarter  sections  are  joined 
and  drawn  together  by  means  of  bolts  and  lugs,  the  latter  made  from 
f-incli  tire  steel  and  riveted  on  the  forms  as  shown  in  figure  be.  Note 
that  on  one  end  of  the  section  the  lugs  are  riveted  on  flush  with  the 
edge  of  the  iron,  while  at  the  other  end  they  are  set  in  5 inches  from 
the  edge  to  permit  the  lap.  If  preferred,  the  lugs  may  be  put  on  the 
top  of  the  supporting  circles  instead  of  on  the  sheet  iron.  The  lugs 
should  be  made  about  24  inches  long  to  provide  for  several  rivets. 
For  drawing  the  sections  together  use  f-inch  bolts,  b inches  long, 
with  hexagonal  heads  and  nuts  and  extra  long  thread.  (See  fig.  5c.) 
The  forms  are  now  ready  for  use. 

The  experienced  silo  builder  may  leave  off  the  supporting  circles 
from  the  outside  form.  For  the  inexperienced  man  it  is  generally 
safer  to  provide  these  supporting  circles,  as  they  prevent  the  sheet 
iron  from  drawing  at  the  top  when  the  concrete  is  being  placed. 

SETTING  THE  FORMS. 

Ill  buildmg  the  wall  the  inside  form  is  used  from  the  footing  up. 
Generally  for  the  first  3 feet  of  wall  the  outside  form  is  not  needed, 
the  earth  wall  of  the  pit  serving  in  place  of  the  outside  form.  As 
soon  as  the  wall  reaches  the  top  of  the  ground  the  outside  form  must 
be  placed  in  position.  In  order  to  space  the  outside  form  exactly  6 
inches  from  the  inner  it  may  be  necessary  to  saw  a number  of  blocks 
6 inches  long  and  place  them  at  intervals  along  the  bottom  to  tem- 
porarily hold  the  form  in  jilace.  As  the  concrete  is  filled  in  these 
blocks  must  be  removed.  Leaving  them  in  the  wall  might  permit 
air  to  enter  the  silo  at  those  points.  For  spacing  the  forms  at  the  top 
a number  of  pieces  of  the  shape  shown  in  figure  bd  wiU  be  found 
useful. 

40084°— Bull.  589—14 3 


18 


farmers'  bulletin  589. 


The  greatest  of  care  must  be  taken  to  have  both  forms  level  across 
the  toj)  and  the  sides  plumb.  If  on  one  side  of  the  silo  the  forms  arc 
higher  than  on  the  other  they  are  out  of  round,  and  consexpiently  the 
wall  at  some  ])laces  will  be  thicker  than  at  others,  thus  making  it 

im})ossible  to  build  the  wall 
jdurnb.  The  diligent  use  of  a 
plumb  bob  and  a good  level 
to  see  that  the  forms  are 
plumb  and  level  at  each  rais- 
ing will  save  much  annoyance 
later. 

SCAFFOLDING. 

As  soon  as  the  forms  are  in 
})lace  for  the  first  time,  it  is  well 
to  start  the  scaffolding  shown 
in  figure  8,  which  supports  the 
forms  and  from  which  the  work 
is  done.  It  is  less  expensive 
and  also  more  convenient  to 
have  the  working  platform  on 
the  inside  of  the  silo  rather 
than  on  the  outside.  For  this 
scaffold  2 by  4 inch  scantling 
doubled  is  the  most  conven- 
ient material,  but  long  straight 
poles  can  be  used  equally  well, 
and  frequently  at  much  less 
expense.  It  is  well  to  set  the 
poles  or  scantlings  in  the 
ground  4 to  6 inches  in  order 
to  make  them  more  secure. 
They  should  also  be  securely 
braced.  Figure  8 shows  how 
they  are  distributed  for  both 
inside  and  outside  scaffolds. 
The  number  of  uprights  needed 
will  vary  with  the  diameter: 
silos  of  small  diameter  may 
require  only  9 for  the  inside, 
while  for  large  silos  17  or 
more  may  be  found  necessary.  The  number  needed  for  the  out- 
side scaffold  will  vary  in  j)roportion.  The  uprights  on  the  inside 
are  set  in  from  the  waU  12  inches  to  permit  the  removing  of  the 
form.  If  the  u])rights  are  set  too  close  to  the  wall  it  will  cause 
trouble,  as  in  raising  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  form  to  ])ass 


Fig.  S.— Scaffold  used  in  constructing  concrete  silo. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


19 


by  the  other.  The  uprights  should  he  set  ])lumb  and  with  a straight 
side  toward  the  wall. 

REINFORCING. 

Concrete,  like  all  masonry  work,  must  he  reinforced  when  subjected 
to  a i)ulhng  or  bending  stress.  Concrete  of  itself  has  a low  tensile 
strength.  Silage  is  a heavy  material  and  exerts  considerable  pressure 
upon  the  walls.  In  addition  to  this  pressure  of  the  silage  there  is 
also  wind  pressure,  which  on  occasions  is  considerable;  but  the  circu- 
lar walls,  together  with  the  numerous  strands  of  wire  in  the  kind  of 
reinforcement  recommended,  are  more  than  sufficient  to  guard 
against  failure. 

The  material  used  for  reinforcement  may  be  steel  rods,  bars,  or 
ordinary  wire,  provided  the  amount  used  is  sufficient  to  withstand 
the  pressure  The  most  convenient  material  to  use  and  one  that  is 
readily  obtained  anywhere  at  a reasonable  cost  is  the  common  woven 
or  welded  steel  hog  fencing,  32  or  34  inches  wide,  with  horizontal 
strands  of  No.  9 wire.  This  wire  is  easily  jilaced  in  position,  and  is 
not  easily  displaced  while  filling  the  form. 

Reinforcing  to  be  most  effective  must  be  placed  near  the  surface 
wiiere  the  pull  will  come.  In  a silo  wall  this  is  on  the  outside,  so  the 
reinforcing  should  be  })laced  from  1 to  2 inches  inside  the  outer  sur- 
face. Since  the  strength  of  the  wall  depends  largely  upon  the  rein- 
forcing used,  it  is  never  advisable  to  use  old  or  damaged  wire,  and  in 
handling  the  wire  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  kinks  and  sharp 
bends.  If  the  silo  wall  is  over  30  feet  in  height,  the  first  two  or  three 
courses  should  have  the  fencing  doubled  to  meet  the  increased 
pressure. 

In  the  table  below  is  given  the  length  to  which  to  cut  the  fencing. 
The  lengths  given  allow  6 inches  for  use  in  fastening  ends  together 
securely  so  that  there  is  no  chance  of  slipping. 

Each  course  of  reinforcement  should  be  securely  laced  to  the  pre- 
ceding course  with  No.  16  soft  wire. 

Length  to  which  to  cut  fencing  for  reinforcing  concrete  wall. 


Diameter 
of  silo,  j 

Length  of 
fencing  re- 
quired to 
make  cir- 
cumfer- 
ence. i 

Diameter 
of  silo. 

Length  of 
fencing  re- 
quired to 
make  cir- 
cumfer- 
ence. i 

Feet. 

Ft.  In. 

Feet. 

Ft.  In. 

10 

34  3 

15 

50  0 

11 

37  5 

16 

53  1 

12 

40  7 

17 

56  3 

13 

; 43  8 

IS 

59  5 

11 

46  10 

1 

Includes  6 inches  for  fastening. 


20 


farmers'  bulletin  589.  ■ 


Special  care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  reinforcing  around  the  doors 
as  strong  as  in  any  other  part  of  the  wall.  P^igure  9 shows  how  a 
five-eighths  inch  rod,  or  its  equivalent,  should  be  placed  on  either 
side  of  the  opening  about  2 inches  from  the  door  form.  The  hori- 
zontal strands  of  the  fencing  are  cut  to  admit  the  door  form,  and  the 
ends  are  securely  wound  around  the  iron  rods.  The  rods  should 


extend  6 to  S inches  above  and  below  the  door  openings  and  should 
be  tied  with  several  strands  of  No.  9 wire. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  CONCRETE. 

CEMENT. 

Only  the  best  Portland  cement  on  the  market  is  suitable  for  building 
thin  reinforced  walls  such  as  are  used  in  silo  building.  Portland 
cement  comes  packed  in  either  barrels  or  sacks,  four  sacks  equaling  a 
barrel.  In  buying  cement  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  stock 
is  fresh.  When  cement  is  stored  where  it  can  absorb  moisture  it 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


21 


becomes  liim])y  and  hard  and  unfit  for  use.  Hardness,  however,  is 
not  always  an  indication  that  the  cement  is  unfit  for  use,  as  it  may 
become  hard  if  stored  under  considerable  ])ressure,  and  if  such  ])res- 
sure  is  not  combined  with  a moist  condition  the  cement  may  a^ain 
be  pulverized  and  used.  ITidess  there  is  a good  dry  ])lace  in  which  to 
store  the  cement  it  should  not  be  purchased  until  it  is  to  be  used. 
If  circumstances  recpiire  storing  temporarily,  select  a dry  j)lacG 
])rotected  from  the  weather  and  pile  the  cement  on  a board  floor. 

SAND. 

Sand  for  building  a silo  should  be  coarse,  and  above  all  it  should  be 
clean — that  is,  free  from  clay  or  vegetable  matter.  A fine  sand  is 
objectionable  because  it  does  not  make  as  strong  a wall  as  coarse  sand 
and  also  because  it  requires  more  cement.  A mixture  of  coarse  and 
fine  sand,  however,  will  make  good  strong  concrete.  A common 
method  of  testing  sand  for  vegetable  loam  is  to  take  handfuls  of  the 
moist  sand  from  the  bank  and  rub  between  the  hands.  If  the  ])alm 
and  fingers  are  covered  with  a film  of  pasty  slime,  the  sand  contains 
vegetable  matter  and  should  be  washed  before  using. 

CRUSHED  STONE  OR  GRAVEL. 

The  bulk  of  concrete  consists  of  gravel  or  crushed  stone  that  is 
added  to  the  sand  and  cement.  Other  materials,  such  as  pieces  of 
hard  brick,  oyster  shells,  and  cinders,  can  be  used  instead  of  the 
crushed  rock.  Crushed  stone  is  the  best  because  it  is  more  sure  of 
being  clean  and  of  the  right  size.  Gravel  taken  from  a creek  is  often 
coated  with  clay  loam,  which  prev^ents  the  cement  from  making  a good 
union,  and  very  often  it  contains  particles  that  are  too  large  or  of  a 
crumbly  character.  Such  gravel  should  be  run  over  a screen  and 
washed  before  using. 

Soft  granite,  shale  slate  rock,  or  dusty  cinders  are  not  desirable. 
Whatever  material  is  used  should  be  free  from  dust  and  dirt;  it  should 
not  easily  crush  and  disintegrate,  and  shouh]  be  suita()le  to  give  a good 
strong  union  with  the  cement. 

In  some  localities  there  are  natural  deposits  of  gravel  containing 
varying  proportions  of  sand.  If  clean  and  not  too  coarse,  such  gravel 
is  well  suited  for  silo  building;  but  in  using  this  material  it  is  never 
safe  to  assume  that  the  proportion  of  sand  to  gravel  is  correct  until  a 
quantity  has  been  run  over  a screen  (I-inch  mesh)  and  the  exact 
proportions  determined.  Usually  the  gravel  contains  too  much  sand. 

For  the  foundation  the  stone  may  be  as  large  as  will  pass  through 
a 2f-inch  ring,  while  for  the  main  wall  of  6-inch  thickness  the  size 
should  not  exceed  H inches.  A mixture  of  particles  of  various  sizes 
from  ^ up  to  inches  makes  the  strongest  wall. 


22 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  5S9. 


WATER. 


The  water  used  for  mixing  concrete  should  be  clean  and  free  from 
alkalies  and  acids.  The  drainage  water  from  the  barnyafd  or  water 
from  a muddy  stream  is  unfit  for  use. 


PROPORTIONS. 


For  the  foundation  use  a 1:3  : 6 mixture;  that  is,  a mixture  of  1 
part  cement,  3 parts  sand,  and  6 parts  crushed  rock.  For  the  main 
wall  use  a 1:3:5  mixture,  or  1 part  cement  to  3 parts  sand  and  5 
parts  rock.  These  proportions  apply  when  all  the  material  is  first 
class.  If  the  sand  is  fine,  the  proportion  of  cement  must  be  increased 
10  to  15  per  cent  to  insure  a strong  mixture. 

The  mixed  concrete  should  be  placed  promptly,  after  mixing. 


""4 

b 


Fig.  10. — Measuring  box  for  concrete  materials. 


before  it  begins  to  set;  therefore  in  silo  building  it  is  not  advisable 
to  mix  up  very  large  batches  at  a time.  After  the  silo  wall  is  above 
a man’s  reach  as  large  a batch  as  ought  to  be  attempted  is  what  is 
known  as  a two-bag  batch,  or  the  quantity  of  concrete  that  requires 
two  bags  of  cement. 


MEASURING. 


The  measuring  of  the  different  ingredients  for  concrete  is  an  impor- 
tant part  of  the  work  and  requires  care  and  attention.  The  most 
accurate  way  to  measure  sand  and  gravel  for  such  a batch  is  to  use 
a frame  or  measuring  box,  as  shown  in  figure  10a.  For  a 1:3*5 
mixture  this  frame  should  measure,  inside,  4 feet  7 inches  long,  2 feet 
wide,  and  12  inches  deep.  On  the  inside  of  the  frame,  21 1 inches 
from  one  end,  a partition  is  placed  crosswise  of  the  box.  When 
measuring  the  rock  this  whole  frame  is  filled  level  full,  and  for  meas- 
uring the  sand  use  only  the  largest  division  of  the  frame  level  full. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


23 


MIXING  HOARD. 

The  first  requirement  for  mixing  is  a level,  water-tight  platform. 
The  smallest  size  found  convenient  in  silo  building  is  9 by  10  feet. 
With  a board  of  this  size  one  batch  can  be  put  into  the  forms  while 
another  is  being  prepared;  the  process  of  filling  is  made  continuous, 
and  all  the  working  force  is  constantly  employed.  The  platform 
or  mixing  board  should  be  built  of  dressed  1-inch  lumber  nailed  to  a 
sufficient  number  of  2 by  4 inch  cleats  to  prevent  sagging.  If  2 by  4 
inch  pieces  are  nailed  around  the  edge  of  the  board,  they  will  help 
prevent  loss  of  material  in  the  process  of  mixing. 

The  platform  should  be  placed  with  one  end  not  over  2 feet  from 
the  silo  wall,  so  that  the  mixture  can  be  shoveled  from  the  board  into 
the  buckets  used  in  hoisting,  thus  avoiding  all  carrying.  The  position 
of  the  mixing  board  should  be  determined  before  any  of  the  sand  and 
gravel  are  delivered,  so  that  these  materials  can  be  piled  in  the  most 
convenient  place. 

A water-tight  barrel,  filled  with  water  before  each  batch,  should  be 
placed  conveniently  at  one  side  of  the  mixing  platform.  Also  an 
ordinary  2-gallon  water  pail  is  needed.  For  the  mixing  and  handling 
of  the  concrete  square-pointed,  short-handled  shovels  are  best.  An 
ordinary  garden  rake  and  two  field  hoes  should  also  be  provided. 
For  bringing  the  sand  and  gravel  to  the  concrete  board  two  wheel- 
barrows should  be  supplied.  With  this  preparation  the  work  of 
mixing  should  proceed  without  interruption. 

MIXING. 

Place  the  measuring  box  at  the  end  of  the  board  farthest  removed 
from  the  silo,  and  with  the  wheelbarrows  bring  up  the  sand  and  fill 
the  largest  division  of  the  frame  level  full.  (,See  fig.  10«,)  Then  lift 
the  frame  off  and  set  it  to  one  side,  leaving  the  required  amount  of 
sand  on  the  board.  Spread  the  sand  out  evenly  to  the  depth  of  not 
over  4 inches  and  over  this  distribute  the  two  bags  of  cement.  Two 
men  with  the  square-pointed  shovels  then  turn  the  mixture  over 
until  it  is  a uniform  color,  showing  that  the  mixing  is  done  well.  In 
turning  the  mixture  over  the  men  should  shovel  from  the  same  side 
of  the  pile.  As  each  shovelful  is  turned  the  shovel  should  be  so  held 
that  the  material  is  scattered  instead  of  falling  in  a body.  If  a third 
man  is  available,  he  can  assist  in  the  mixing  by  raking  over  the  pile 
as  it  is  being  turned.  Turning  the  pile  over  in  this  way  three  times 
should  be  sufficient  to  mix  thoroughly  the  sand  and  cement,  but  if  it 
is  streaky  and  of  uneven  color  it  must  be  turned  again. 

At  the  last  turning  the  mass  should  be  rounded  up  into  a low  crater- 
like pit,  and  the  water  added  by  pouring  it  into  the  crater.  With  the 
field  hoes  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  era, ter  are  pulled  in  gradually, 
water  being  added  until  the  whole  mass  is  uniformly  wet  and  about 
the  consistency  of  thin  mortar.  Spread  the  jiile  out  so  that  it  will 


24 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  580. 


not  be  more  than  3 or  4 inches  deep,  set  tlie  measuring  frame  over  it, 
and  fill  the  latter  level  full  with  the  crushed  rock  or  its  equivalent. 
Each  barrowful  of  rock  should  be  thoroughly  wet  to  wash  off  the  dust 
before  dumping  into  the  measuring  frame.  Wlien  filled,  lift  off  tlie 
measuring  frame  and  shovel  on  top  of  the  pile  the  mortar  that  is  not 
covered.  Turn  this  mass  over  at  least  tliree  times  and  in  such  a way 
that  the  last  turning  will  place  it  next  to  the  silo  convenient  to  the 
hoisting  buckets.  During  this  mixing,  water  may  be  added  if  required 
to  bring  the  mass  to  the  proper  consistency. 

The  most  convenient  device  for  carrying  and  pouring  the  concrete 
into  the  forms  is  an  ordinary  coal  scuttle,  and  if  care  is  taken  not  to 
overload  them,  three  will  last  for  the  whole  job.  For  elevating  the 
buckets  set  up  a rope  and  single  pulley,  such  as  is  used  over  open 
wells. 

FILLING  THE  FORMS. 

In  filling  the  forms,  only  a few  inches  in  depth  should  be  filled  in  at 
one  place  at  a time.  Depositing  a great  quantity  of  concrete  at  one 
place  puts  a heavy  strain  on  the  forms  and  has  a tendency  to  force 
them  out  of  plumb.  As  the  concrete  is  put  into  the  form  it  should  be 
spaded  with  a piece  of  1 by  3 inch  board,  sharpened  to  a bevel  edge  as 
shown  in  figure  lOh.  The  purpose  of  the  spading  is  to  remove  all  air 
bubbles  and  avoid  the  formation  of  cavities.  On  the  other  hand,  in  a 
wet  mixture  as  used  in  silo  building  the  spading  must  not  be  overdone^ 
or  the  heavier  rock  will  sink  to  the  bottom  and  the  cement  and  water 
will  rise  to  the  top. 

The  exterior  surface  can  be  kept  smooth  by  greasing  the  outside  form 
with  soap  or  some  cheap  oil  or  grease.  To  be  effective  this  grease 
coat  must  be  renewed  at  each  raising  of  the  forms.  No  grease  should 
be  used  on  the  inside  form,  as  this  surface  is  to  receive  a brush  coat 
of  pure  cement  wash.  Small  particles  of  cement  will  adhere  to  this 
form  each  time  it  is  raised,  and  before  it  is  used  again  these  should  be 
removed  with  a broom  or  a wooden  trowel.  If  these  are  not  removed 
an  undue  amount  of  concrete  will  adhere,  and  this  will  result  in  an 
unnecessarily  rough  wall. 

As  the  forms  are  raised  the  fresh  wall  is  constantly  exposed  to  the 
drying  air  and  sun,  and  there  is  danger  of  the  surface  drying  and  cur- 
ing too  rapidly  for  the  interior  of  the  wall,  causing  cracks.  To  prevent 
this  the  wall  should  be  soaked  with  water  several  times  a day  for 
several  days,  and  when  possible  the  wall  should  be  protected  with 
canvas  or  burlap  thoroughly  wet. 

When  the  forms  have  been  filled  for  the  day  do  not  smooth  the  top 
with  a trowel,  but  leave  it  as  rough  as  possible.  A good  plan  is  to 
roughen  the  top  surface  just  as  the  concrete  starts  to  set.  Before 
])utting  fresh  concrete  on  this  wall  the  next  day,  the  top  surface 
should  be  soaked  with  water  and  then  sprinkled  with  raw  cement, 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


25 


which  will  help  in  making  a good  union  between  courses.  Tlie  forms 
must  not  be  removed  for  at  least  5 hours  after  filling. 

At  the  end  of  eacli  day’s  work  the  mixing  board  and  all  tools  sliould 
be  washed  free  from  cement;  otlierwise  the  next  day’s  work  will  be 
tiresome. 

INSIDE  SURFACE  FINISH. 

A brush  coat  of  cement  wasli  should  be  applied  as  soon  as  the  form 
is  raised  and  before  the  wall  has  had  a chance  to  dry.  This  coat  of 
cement  helps  to  make  the  wall  less  porous  and  therefore  more  nearly 
air  and  water  tight.  The  wasli  is  prepared  by  mixing  togetlier 
Cement  and  water  to  the  consistency  of  thick  lime  whitewasli,  and  is 
apphed  wdth  a whitewash  brush  in  tlie  ordinary  way.  If  the  wall  lias 
had  time  to  dry  it  should  first  be  drenched  with  water. 

After  this  coat  of  cement  wash  has  been  applied  the  whole  interior 
should  be  painted  with  coal  tar  thinned  with  gasoline.  The  coal  tar 
makes  the  wall  impervious  and  also  protects  it  from  the  action  of  acids 
which  develop  in  the  silage.  It  should  be  renewed  from  year  to  year 
as  may  be  required.  The  application  of  the  coal  tar  may  be  left  until 
the  wall  is  conqilete,  but  should  be  done  before  removing  the  interior 
scaffold. 

RAISING  THE  FORMS. 

Before  loosening  the  forms  for  raising,  a straight  edge  should  be  laid 
across  their  top  and  leveled,  and  marks  made  on  the  uprights  to  show 
the  position  of  the  next  set  of  supports,  which  will  be  just  3 inches 
below  the  top  of  the  forms.  If  this  is  done  carefully  there  will  be 
little  trouble  experienced  in  resetting  the  forms. 

Tlie  outside  form  can  then  be  loosened  and  lifted  to  the  top  of  the 
wall  and  rested  there  while  the  supports  are  nailed  in  place  on  the 
outside  scaffold.  The  form  is  then  let  down  on  the  supports  and  the 
bolts  on  the  lower  edge  are  drawn  up  until  the  form  is  tight  against  the 
wall.  The  remaining  bolts  are  drawn  up  carefully  while  a plumb  line 
is  used  to  determine  where  and  how  much  to  tighten.  Wlien  the 
outside  form  is  in  place,  and  before  raising  the  inside  form,  is  a con- 
venient time  to  place  the  reinforcing. 

Next,  the  wedges  are  drawn  on  the  inside  form,  the  sections  lifted 
and  rested  on  the  top  of  the  wall,  while  the  cross  supports  are  nailed 
in  place  and  the  working  platforms  relaid.  This  done,  the  sections 
are  lowered  into  place  and  the  wedges  set,  care  being  taken  to  have 
the  form  tight  against  the  wall  and  perfectly  plumb. 

This  order  of  procedure,  raising  the  outside  form  first,  has  been 
found  the  more  convenient  in  actual  practice.  If  for  any  reason  it  is 
preferable  to  raise  the  inside  form  first,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
drive  the  wedges  tight  enough  to  injure  the  green  wall.  If  the  outside 
form  is  raised  into  position  first,  it  helps  to  support  the  freshly  built 
wall  while  the  wedges  are  being  driven.  In  raising  the  forms  and  in 


26 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


the  process  of  building,  care  sliould  he  taken  to  avoid  jarring  tli(^  wall 
by  heavy  pounding,  which  is  likely  to  injure',  the  concu'h^  in  tlu',  proc(‘ss 
of  setting. 

Time  and  labor  may  he  saved  by  raising  all  the  four  sections  of  the 
form  at  one  time  by  the  use  of  four  sets  of  double  pulleys,  such  as  are 
used  for  stretching  barb  wire,  and  a rope  fastened  around  the  center 
of  each  section. 


Under  the  most  favorable  conditions  at  least  five  hours  should 
elapse  between  the  time  of  filling  and  loosening  the  forms.  A good 


Fig.  11.— Door  and  form  for  door  opening. 


working  plan  is  to  raise  and  fill  the  forms  in  the  morning  and  then 
leave  them  undisturbed  until  the  next  morning. 

DOORS. 

For  making  the  door  openings,  a form  should  be  made  which 
can  be  set  in  between  the  large  wall  forms.  This  form  is  built  of 
such  size  and  shape  (see  fig.  11a)  that  when  the  concrete  is  molded 
about  it  a 2-inch  rabbet  is  formed  around  the  inside  of  the  opening 
into  which  a wooden  door  can  be  set,  this  door  being  held  in  place  by 
the  pressure  of  the  silage  on  the  inside  In  order  that  the  form 
may  be  easily  removed  without  injury  to  the  wall,  the  top  and  sides 
are  built  vuth  a slight  taper,  which  permits  the  form  to  slip  inward 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


27 


when  lightly  tapped  on  the  outside.  The  bottom  ])iee,es  or  sill  of  the 
form  should  ho  left  flat.  All  the  surfaces  should  bo  dressed  with  a 
plane  and  greased  before  using.  In  placing  the  concrete  about  the 
form,  considerable  care  must  he  taken  to  have  it  well  worked  in 


under  the  sill,  or  a lough  job  will  be  the  result.  The  sills  of  the  doors, 
especially  of  the  bottom  door,  receive  much  wear,  and  should  be 
protected  by  a piece  of  angle  or  strap  iron,  which  is  inserted  at  the 
time  the  bottom  2 by  2 inch  piece  is  placed. 


28 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  589. 


Unless  it  happens  that  the  ])osition  of  the  doors  exactly  coincides 
with  the  alternate  raising  of  the  wall  forms,  two  forms  will  be 

required . The  top  and  bottom 
pieces  of  the  forms  are  cuiwed 
to  the  circumference  of  the  silo, 
and  should  be  marked  off  with 
the  slat  shown  in  figure  6 in  the 
same  manner  as  the  templet. 

Figure  115  shows  the  design 
of  the  silo  door.  It  is  made 
by  nailing  together  two  thick- 
nesses of  flooring  mth  tar  or 
building  paper  between.  The 
doors  are  held  in  place  by  the 
pressure  of  the  silage. 


CONTINUOUS  DOOR. 

Many  prefer  a continuous 
door  opening  on  account  of  the 
ease  with  which  the  silage  can 
be  removed  through  such  an 
opening.  A continuous  door- 
way can  be  made  by  setting 
1-inch  pipes  vertically,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  opening,  28 
inches  apart.  These  pipes 
should  extend  into  the  founda- 
tion about  1 foot.  The  rein- 
forcing wire  is  fastened  securely 
to  them,  and  three-fourths  or 
seven-eighths  inch  rods  extend- 
ing horizontally  across  the 
doorway  are  hooked  around 
the  pipes  every  20  inches. 
These  rods  serve  the  purpose 
of  preventing  the  door  jambs 
from  spreading  and  also  carry 
the  strain  of  the  reinforcement 
across  the  door  opening.  (See 
fig . 1 2 .)  When  the  silo  is  com- 
pleted, the  rods  form  the  rungs 
of  a ladder  for  the  silo. 

The  door  itself  may  consist 
of  2-inch  select  planking  10  or  12  inches  wide,  cut  in  2-foot  lengths;  or 
a door  may  be  made  by  nailing  together  two  thicknesses  of  1-inch 
boards  with  building  paper  between  them.  (See  fig.  Il5.)  These 


Fig.  13.- 


-Detail  of  form  for  construction  of  continuous 
door  opening. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


29 


planks,  or  those  doors  if  such  are  used,  fit  into  a rabbet  on  the  inside 
edge  of  the  doorway.  This  rabbet  is  formed  in  the  concrete  by  the 
use  of  a form  to 
which  are  attached 
2 by  2 inch  strips,  as 
shown  in  figure  13. 


FLOOR. 

For  the  floor,  use 
the  same  mixture 
suggested  for  t h e 
foundation  wall,  and 
lay  it  about  4 inches 
deep.  Tamp  this 
down  well,  and  over 
it  put  a J-inch  sur- 
face coat  of  mortal- 
made  by  mixing  3 
parts  sand  and  1 
part  cement.  The 
outlet  for  the  tile 
drain  must  be  pro- 
vided for  at  the  time 
the  foundation  is 
put  in,  but  it  is  sug- 
gested that  the  lay- 
ing of  the  concrete 
floor  be  left  until  all 
the  other  work  of 
building  has  been 
completed. 

ROOF  AND  CHUTE. 

For  attaching  the 
roof  to  the  silo,  a 
number  of  J-inch 
bolts  should  be  set 
in  the  top  of  the  wall  for  bolting  down  the  plate.  (See  fig.  14.) 
These  bolts  are  best  made  from  J-inch  rod  iron  cut  into  18-inch 
lengths,  one  end  to  be  threaded  and  the  other  bent  at  right  angles 
2 1 inches  from  the  end  to  prevent  the  bolt  from  turning  or  pulling  out. 

If  the  silo  is  roofed,  provision  must  be  made  for  a door  opening  for 
filling  the  silo.  Figure  30  shows  a good  type  of  roof  with  a door  in 
the  gable. 

To  prevent  loss  in  removing  the  silage,  the  doors  should  be  inclosed 
in  a chute.  For  entering  the  silo,  a ladder  should  be  built  on  the 
inside  of  the  chute.  For  attaching  this  ladder  and  chute  to  the  silo, 


30 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


bolt  lu)les  may  be  drilled  into  the  concrete  wall  after  it  is  built;  or  at 
the  time  of  building  square-taper  wooden  wedges  may  be  set  in  the 
wall  as  the  concrete  is  being  filled  in.  If  these  wedges  are  well 
peased  before  putting  into  the  wall,  less  trouble  will  be  experienced 
in  punching  them  out. 

THE  STAVE  SILO. 

FOUNDATION. 

rile  materials  to  be  used  for  the  foundation  are  limited  to  three  in 
number— brick,  stone,  and  concrete.  Where  hard-burned  brick  can 
be  secured  cheaply,  as  is  often  the  case  near  brickyards,  it  can  fre- 
quently be  used  to  advantage  for  a foundation.  It  should  be  laid  in 
cement  rather  than  in  lime  mortar.  If  the  foundation  extends  more 
than  1 foot  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  it  should  be  reinforced 
with  heavy  wire. 

Stone  makes  a good  foundation,  but  concrete  is  preferable  under 
most  conditions;  it  is  not  only  stronger,  but  also  generally  cheaper 
than  brick  or  stone. 


The  practice  of  setting  stave  silos  directly  on  the  ground  without 
any  foundation  is  indefensible  when  the  structure  is  wanted  for 
several  years.  The  bottoms  of  the  staves  will  soon  rot,  while  the 
remainder  of  the  silo  may  remain  in  good  condition. 

, LAYING -OFP  THE  FOUNDATION. 

Kemove  any  grass  or  rubbish  wliich  may  be  found  at  the  site  of  the 
silo  wall  and  smooth  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Drive  a stake  firmly 
in  the  ground  at  the  center  of  the  proposed  silo.  Saw  off  this  stake 
at  the  height  desired  for  the  foundation  wall,  which  should  be  at  least 
1 foot  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  One  end  of  a straight  2 by  4 
inch  scantling,  a little  longer  than  is  necessary  to  reach  from  the  center 
of  the  silo  to  the  outside  of  the  foundation  wall,  should  be  nailed  on 
top  of  the  stake  with  a 40-penny  spike.  This  spike  then  marks  the 
exact  center  of  the  silo.  From  it  measure  on  the  scantling  the  dis- 
tance to  the  inside  and  outside  of  the  foundation  wall  and,  having 
nailed  markers  on  as  shown  in  figure  15,  lay  off  the  foundation.  The 
inside  of  the  foundation  wall  should  be  6 inches  nearer  the  center 
of  the  silo  than  the  inside  of  the  staves. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


31 


Where  the  ground  on  which  the  silo  is  to  be  located  is  not  level,  the 
markers  can  be  lengthened  by  holding  a longer  board  against  either 
marker,  as  indicated  in  figure  16,  moving  it  up  or  down  to  keep  it 
touching  the  ground,  but  care  must  be  taken  that  the  scantling  is 
held  level. 

CONSTRUCTION  OP  THE  FOUNDATION. 


Where  stone  or  brick  is  to  be  used,  the  earth  in  the  bottom  of  the 
silo,  except  where  the  center  stake  stands,  may  be  dug  out  before  the 
wall  is  built,  thus  allowing  greater  conveniencefin  building  the  wall. 


The  earth  should  not  be  dug  out  deeper  than  4 inches  above  the  bot- 
tom of  the  wall.  Where  concrete  is  to  be  used,  this  excavation  should 
not  be  made  until  the  wall  has  been  finished  and  the  position  of  the 
staves  marked  on  the  top  of  the  foundation  wall. 

Concrete  foundation. — For  a concrete  foundation,  a circular  trench 
must  be  dug  before  any  of  the  earth  is  removed  from  the  center  (see 
fig.  17).  The  earth  between  the  two  lines  that  mark  the  inside  and 
outside  of  the  foundation  should  be  taken  out  until  firm  ground  below 
frost  line  is  reached,  care  being  taken  to  cut  the  sides  of  the  trench 
plumb  and  to  leave  the  bottom  level. 


Frefaring  the  concrete. — The  concrete  is  prepared  in  just  the  same 
way  as  for  the  construction  of  a concrete  silo.  Directions  will  be 
found  on  page  20. 

Filling  the  trencF  with  concrete. — Put  in  the  fh'st  layer  about  6 
inches  deep  and  thoroughly  tamp  the  concrete  until  water  appears 
on  the  surfacCc  A good  tool  for  tamping  may  be  made  of  a 
piece  of  4 by  6 inch  lumber,  2 feet  long,  with  a hole  bored  in  the 
center  of  one  end  to  receive  a round  handle  4 feet  long.  When  the 
second  layer  is  put  on,  the  surface  of  the  first  layer  should  be  per- 


32 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


fectly  dean  and  rough,  and  if  dry  it  should  be  sprinkled  with  watc^r. 
Particular  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  all  dust  and  loose  soil  from 
the  surface  of  each  layer,  as  these  prevent  perfect  adhesion. 

Building  forms. — After  the  trench  is  filled  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  drive  2 by  4 inch  stakes  half  an  inch  from  the  foundation  on 
the  inside  and  2 feet  apart  all  the  way  round.  (See  fig.  18.) 
With  a straightedge  ])laced  level — one  end  on  toj)  of  tlie  center  stake 
and  the  other  against  the  side  of  the  form  stake — mark  on  the  foi*m 
stake  the  desired  height  of  the  wall.  Mark  thus  on  every  second 


Fig.  18. — Form  for  foundation  above  ground  partly  boarded  up. 


stake.  Take  jiieces  of  lumber  one-half  inch  thick  by  6 inches  wide, 
preferably  green,  vdth  straight  edges,  and  bend  around  outside  of 
these  stakes,  nailing  the  boards  to  the  stakes,  vdth  the  top  edge  at 
the  marks.  Then  saw  off  the  tops  of  the  stakes  above  the  boards. 
(The  necessity  for  this  sawing  may  be  avoided  by  driving  down  the 
stakes  beforehand  to  the  exact  height.)  After  the  space  from  the 
top  board  to  the  ground  has  been  boarded  in,  drive  stakes  in  a 
similar  manner  for  the  outside  form  half  an  inch  from  the  concrete. 
Drive  these  stakes  so  that  the  scantling  resting  on  the  center  stake 


Fig.  19. — Form  filled  with  concrete  showing  eyebolts  and  slats  in  place  and  circle  to  mark  position 

of  staves. 


and  the  inside  form,  as  shown  in  figure  18,  will  just  clear  the  tops. 
Board  up  these  stakes  on  the  inside,  making  the  top  of  the  outer 
form  level  with  that  of  the  inner. 

At  several  jilaces  nail  slats  across  the  top  of  the  form  to  keep  the 
inner  and  outer  circles  the  proper  distance  apart.  After  all  the  boards 
are  on,  the  form  is  ready  to  be  filled  with  concrete.  (See  fig.  19.) 

Filling  the  /orm.— Eyebolts  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  from  20  to 
24  inches  long,  and  about  5 feet  apart,  with  a hook  or  elbow  on  the 
lower  end,  should  be  placed  8 inches  from  the  inside  of  the  foundation 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


38 


and  held  in  a vertical  })()siti()n  by  boards  fastened  across  the  to})  of 
the  form.  The  bolts  may  be  ])ut  through  pieces  of  board,  as  shown 
in  figure  19,  and  the  boards  afterwards  spht  away  with  an  ax.  These 
bolts  should  extend  8 or  10  inches  above  the  top  of  the  wall,  and  the 
concrete  filled  in  around  them.  They  are  to  be  used,  after  the  silo 
s completed,  for  securing  the  wooden  part  of  the  structure  to  the 
foundation,  the  staves  adjoining  the  eyebolts  being  securely  fastened 
to  them. 

If  the  wall  extends  more  than  1 foot  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  it  should  be  reinforced  by  embedding  in  the  concrete,  every 
8 inches  above  the  surface  and  near  the  outer  edge,  two  or  three 
strands  of  wire  mth  ends  tied  together.  After  tamping  each  6-inch 
layer  of  concrete,  work  a spade  between  the  concrete  and  the  form 
to  force  the  coarser  materials  away  from  the  boards,  thus  leaving 
smooth-surfaced  walls. 

When  the  concrete  is  within  1 inch  of  the  top,  finish  with  mortar 
made  by  mixing  1 part  of  cement  to  3 parts  of  sand,  and  strike  off 
level  with  the  top  edges  of  the  form. 

After  the  concrete  has  set  and  before  removing  the  center  stake, 
mark  a line  with  a nail,  pencil,  or  crayon  entirely  around  on  top  of 
the  foundation  wall  6 inches  from  the  inner  edge  to  show  where  the 
inside  edge  of  the  staves  wiU  come.  (See  fig.  19.) 

The  dirt  inside  the  foundation  may  next  be  dug  out  to  4 inches 
above  the  bottom  of  the  wall.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however, 
that  the  bottom  of  the  silo  should  not  be  more  than  5 feet  below  the 
lowest  door  and  that  the  bottom  of  this  door  will  be  1 foot  above  the 
foundation. 

FLOOR. 

The  floor  should  be  constructed  in  the  same  way  as  for  a concrete 
silo.  Directions  are  to  be  found  on  page  29. 

THE  STAVES. 

LUMBER. 

Cypress,  long-leaf  pine,  white  pine,  cedar,  and  California  redwood 
are  good  materials  for  stave  silos.  It  is  important  that  the  staves 
be  straight  and  free  from  sap  wood,  loose  knots,  and  waney  edges. 

PREPARING  THE  STAVES. 

wStaves  should  be  made  of  2 by  4 or  2 by  6 inch  scantling,  the  latter 
being  preferable,  jiarticularly  for  the  larger  silos.  They  should  be 
of  the  same  width  and  thickness  and  should  be  dressed  on  all  sides, 
the  edges  being  left  square.  It  is  considered  necessary  by  some  that 
the  edges  of  the  staves  be  tongued  and  grooved,  but  satisfactory  results 
can  be  obtained  by  using  square-edged  staves,  and  at  less  expense. 

After  the  staves  are  squared  at  the  ends,  holes  should  be  bored  in 
the  edges  from  4 to  6 feet  apart  with  a ^-inch  bit.  These  holes  are 


34 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


Fig.  20.— Cross  section  showing  how  two  adjoining  staves 
are  spiked  together. 


mudo  on  one  edge  only  of  each  stave,  and  must  not  be  in  line  in 
adjoining  staves.  They  should  be  about  1 inch  dee})  in  staves  4 

inches  wide,  and  a})out  3 
inches  deej)  in  staves  6 
inches  wide.  One  of  these 
holes  should  come  within  a 
foot  of  each  end  of  the 
stave.  Bore  the  holes  jier- 
])endicular  to  the  edge  of 
the  stave,  to  avoid  having 
the  silo  thrown  out  of  i^lumb.  The  }>ur])ose  of  these  holes  is  to  allow 
s}3iking  the  staves  together  when  set  up.  The  s})ike  is  driven  to  the 
bottom  of  the  hole,  and  ]3asses  through  the  rest  of  that  stave  and 
into  the  adj  oining stave,  as  shown  in  figure  20.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  })ut 
any  s})ikes  in  those  ])ortions 
of  staves  which  are  to  be 
cut  out  for  doors. 

It  is  preferable  that  each 
stave  be  in  one  j^iece,  but 
where  this  is  impossible  the 
staves  should  be  of  two 
}iieces  of  different  lengths, 
s}:)lined  together  by  makmg 
in  the  ends  to  be  joined  a 
saw  cut  1 uich  deep  and 
}:)arallel  to  the  sides  of  the 
stave  and  inserting  a sheet 
iron  splme  (preferably  gal- 
vanized), as  shown  in  fig- 
ure 21 . 


CUTTING  THE  DOOR  STAVE. 


Before  the  staves  are  put  F.G.2i.-Methodot  splicing  ends 

\ of  staves. 

up  it  is  necessary  to  decide 

how  many  doors  the  silo  should  have,  that  a door 
stave  may  be  ]3repared.  The  table  on  i:>age  8 will 
assist  the  builder  in  determining  the  number  of 
doors  and  the  distance  between  them.  AVIien  this 
has  been  done,  the  location  of  the  doors  is  laid  off 
on  a stave  and  saw  cuts  are  made  halfway  through 
for  the  entrance  of  the  saw  in  cutting  out  the  doors  after  the  staves 
are  set  up.  The  cuts  should  be  made  at  a slant  of  45°  on  the  edge 
of  the  stave  but  horizontal  on  the  front,  as  shown  in  figure  22.  (See 


Fig.  22.— Stave  partly  cut 
through  for  doors. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


35 


also  fig.  28.)  The  object  of  the  slanting  cut  is  to  make  tlie  doors  re- 
movable only  toward  the  inside  of  the  silo,  and  so  that  when  it  is 
full  the  pressure  of  the  silage  will  hold  the  doors  in  ]>lace.  The  cut 
for  the  bottom  of  each  door  should  slant  downward  from  the  outside 
of  the  stave,  and  the  cut  for  the  top  of  the  door  should  slant  upward. 


Fig.  23. — The  first  stave  (a)  in  position. 

To  prevent  this  stave  from  breaking  while  it  is  being  handled,  a 
slat  should  be  nailed  on  one  side  of  it.  Tliis  slat  should  he  removed 
after  the  stave  has  been  put  in  position. 

AVhen  the  staves  are  being  put  up,  the  door  stave  should  he  located 
at  one  side  of  the  place  where  the  doors  are  to  be  cut.  After  the  hoops 
are  put  on  the  silo,  a handsaw  can  he  inserted  in  the  saw  cuts  of  the 
door  stave  for  the  purpose  of  sawing  out  the  doors. 


36 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


SETTING  UP  THE  STAVES. 

In  order  to  nail  the  staves  together  at  the  top  when  they  are  being 
pnt  up,  it  will  be  necessary  to  provide  a scaffold.  Where  the  silo 
is  not  to  be  over  25  feet  high,  a stepladder,  as  shown  in  figures  23  and 
24,  may  be  used.  As  the  staves  are  put  up  the  ladder  can  be  moved 
along  and  kept  m the  right  place  from  which  to  work. 


Fig.  24.— Several  staves  in  position. 

Tlie  first  stave  (fig.  23)  should  be  placed  with  its  inner  face  on  the 
line  (fig.  19)  6 inches  from  the  inner  edge  of  the  foundation.  It 
should  be  plumbed  in  both  directions  and  securely  fastened  at  top 
and  bottom.  For  this  purpose  use  braces  nailed  to  stakes  driven 
firmly  in  the  ground  or  to  some  adjacent  building,  as  shown  in  figure 
23.  If  this  is  not  done  the  silo  will  be  out  of  plumb. 

The  next  stave  is  then  set  up  and  nailed  to  the  first  with  30  or  40 
])enny  spikes.  These  spikes  are  started  in  the  holes  previously 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


37 


bored  (fig.  20)  and  driven  home  with  a drift])in.  The  spikes  must 
not  he  driven  at  an  angle  up  or  down,  for  either  of  these  will  throw 
the  silo  out  of  plumb. 

Other  staves  should  be  put  up  as  above  described  and  as  shown  in 
figure  24  until  the  place  is  reached  where  the  doors  should  be.  Tlie 
door  stave,  cut  as  previously  described,  shoidd  then  he  nailed  in 


position  and  the  remaining  staves  set  up.  In  setting  up  spliced  staves 
the  longer  and  the  shorter  staves  should  alternate.  (See  fig.  25.) 
Ordinarily  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  have  staves  of  two  lengths,  as, 
for  instance,  16  feet  and  12  feet  for  a 28-foot  silo.  Figure  25  shows 
all  the  staves  in  position  ready  for  the  hoops.  The  junction  pouits 
of  top  and  bottom  pieces  are  shown;  also  the  door  stave  with  saw 
cuts  part  way  through  it. 


38 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


THE  HOOPS. 

The  hoops  should  be  made  of  f , f , and  i inch  rods,  in  sections  from 
10  to  16  feet  in  length.  The  ends  of  these  rods  should  be  threaded 
6 inches  so  that  they  may  be  joined  together  by  ineans  of  lugs.  For 


silos  smaller  than  14  by  30  feet  the  lower  hoops  should  be  of  f-inch 
rods  and  the  upper  of  J-inch.  For  silos  larger  than  14  by  30  feet  the 
lower  hoops  should  be  of  f-inch  and  the  upper  hoops  of  |-inch,  oi 
if  three  sizes  of  hoops  are  used,  the  lower  ones  should  be  of  f-inch 
the  middle  hoops  of  f-inch,  and  the  upper  of  J-inch  rods. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


39 


PUTTING  ON  TIIK  HOOPS. 

Two  hoops  should  ho  phioed  ])olow  the  first  door,  two  Ixdwooii 
doors  jdl  tho  way  up,  and  two  ahovo  the  top  door  if  this  spaco  is 
more  than  2 foot;  if  loss  than  2 foot,  one  will  ho  sufliciout.  Throe 
or  four  hoops  shouhl  at  first  be  out  on  at  the  bottom  and  tightened 


up.  Planks  can  then  be  thrown  across  the  top  of  the  silo  to  serve  as 
a scaffold,  so  that  the  top  hoop  may  be  put  on  and  tightened.  The 
other  hoops  should  then  be  put  around  the  silo  loosely,  within  reach 
of  the  ground,  after  which  they  are  pushed  up  to  the  proper  position 
with  slats  and  from  a ladder  they  are  made  fast  by  stapling  them  to 
the  silo.  When  all  the  hoops  are  in  position  they  should  be  tightened 


40 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


until  the  staves  are  pressed  close  together.  Staples  should  then  he 
driven  over  each  hoop  2 or  3 feet  apart  so  as  to  hold  the  hoops  in 
the  proper  position  in  case  they  get  loose. 

JOINING  HOOPS  WITHOUT  LUGS. 

It  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  get  lugs  for  the  hoops.  In  such 
cases  4 by  6 inch  timbers  may  be  put  in  instead  of  ordinary  staves 


Fig.  28. — The  finished  door:  a,  Door  showing  outer  face  and  cleats;  5,  section  of  side  wall 
showing  how  door  fits. 

at  the  three  or  four  points  where  the  hoops  will  join.  These  timbers 
should  be  placed  with  the  4-inch  face  flush  with  the  staves  on  the 
inside  and  they  will  extend  4 inches  beyond  the  wall  on  the  outside. 
Through  these  outside  projections  holes  should  be  bored  to  receive 
the  hoops,  and  the  ends  may  be  fastened  with  nuts.  Large  iron 
washers  should  be  used  under  the  nuts.  Such  a method  of  con- 
necting the  hoops  is  shown  in  figure  26,  but  its  use  is  advised  only 
when  the  lugs  can  not  be  obtained. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


41 


THE  DOORS. 


hAl 


jg- 


SAWIN(}  OUT  AND  MAKING. 

After  all  the  hoops  are  tightened,  saw  out  the  doors,  beginning  with 
the  stave  previously  cut.  The  illustration  (fig.  27)  shows  the  lower 
door  completely  cut  and  the  second  one  partly  cut.  The  doors  should 
be  about  20  inches  wide  and  30  inches  high.  The  exact  width  will  of 
course  be  determined  by  the  width  of  the  staves. 

Two  cleats,  2 by  4 inches,  with  one  edge  cut  to  the  circle  of  the 
silo,  should  be  nailed  and 
bolted  on  the  outside  of  each 
door  (fig.  28)  with  the  nuts 
on  the  outside  and  the  bolt- 
heads  sunk  flush  with  the 
inner  surface.  The  bolts 
should  be  f inch  by  5 inches. 

Four  bolts  in  each  cleat 
(two  at  each  end)  will  be 
sufficient;  the  cleats  may 
be  nailed  to  the  other  strips. 

After  the  doors  are  cut,  bolt 
the  silo  to  the  eyebolts  shown 
in  figure  19. 


-[vr 


13- 


-m 


Fig.  29. — A continuous  door:  a,  A section  of  the  door;  b, 
doorframe  with  door  in  position;  c,  cross  section  show- 
ing door  and  frame. 


A CONTINUOUS  DOOR. 

To  construct  a continuous 
door  for  a stave  silo,  a door- 
frame should  be  made  of  4 by 
6 inch  timbers  which  are  kept 
20  inches  apart  by  means  of 
pieces  of  pipe  and  are  fastened 
together  by  means  of  bolts 
passing  through  the  posts  and 
pipes,  as  shown  in  figure  29. 

Iron  washers  should  be  placed  between  the  ends  of  the  pipe  and  the 
timbers  to  prevent  the  pipe  from  sinking  into  the  timber.  Washers 
should  also  be  used  under  the  bolt-heads  and  nuts. 

When  the  door  frame  is  complete,  it  should  be  put  in  position, 
plumbed,  and  securely  braced,  after  which  the  staves  should  be  put 
up,  as  previously  described.  The  doorposts  should  be  flush  with 
the  staves  on  the  inside.  On  the  outside  they  will  project  beyond 
the  staves,  and  holes  should  be  bored  in  these  projections  to  permit 
the  hoops  to  pass  through. 


42 


farmers'  bulletin  589. 


Doors  for  this  frame  are  made  of  two  thicknesses  of  touguiRl-and- 
grooved  flooring  with  acid-proof  building  paper  between  the  insichi 
flooring  running  vertically  and  the  outside  horizontally.  The  doors 
are  held  in  position  by  means  of  iron  straps,  one  on  each  side,  which 
project  over  a slat  nailed  to  the  doorpost.  When  the  silage  is  being 


Fig.  30. — Roof  with  door  in  gable. 


where  they  meet  and  thus  make  a tight  joint, 
suitable  frames  can  also  be  purchased. 


used,  instead  of  the 
doors  being  removed 
from  the  frames,  they 
are  slid  up  out  of  the 
way  and  held  by  a 
pin  in  the  doorpost. 
The  topmost  door  will 
have  to  be  taken  out, 
and  this  will  make 
room  for  the  other 
doors  to  be  raised, 
one  at  a time,  enough 
to  give  an  opening. 

As  shown  in  figure 
29,  the  doors  are  so 
made  as  to  overlap 
Patented  doors  with 


ROOF,  LADDER,  AND  CHUTE. 


Figure  30  shows  the  framing  and  boarding  for  a good  type  of  roof, 
with  the  door  for  filling  the  silo  in  a gable. 

Figure  31  shows  the  same  roof  as  figure  30,  but  with  a trapdoor 
for  filling,  in  place 
of  the  door  in  the 
gable. 

A ladder  should 
be  attached  to  the 
silo  at  one  side  of 
the  doors,  and  a 
chute,  through 
which  to  remove 
the  silage,  should 
be  built  so  as  to 
inclose  the  ladder 
and  the  doors,  as  shown  in  figure  32.  This  should  be  large  enough 
to  permit  a man  to  climb  the  ladder  conveniently.  In  case  the  con- 
tinuous door  is  adopted,  the  ladder  may  be  dispensed  with,  as  the 
hoops  will  serve  for  steps.  (See  fig.  29.) 


Fig.  31. — Roof  with  trapdoor  for  filling  silo. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


43 


PAINTING. 

Before  the  silo  is  filled,  it  should  he  painted  on  the  inside  with  raw 
coal  tar  thinned  with  gasoline.  Every  two  or  three  years  a fresh  coat 
of  this  ])aint  should  be  ])ut  on.  When  the  timber  in  the  silo  is 


thoroughly  dry,  the  outside  of  it  should  be  painted  to  harmonize 
with  the  surrounding  buildings. 

THE  MODIFIED  WISCONSIN  SILO. 

FOUNDATION. 

The  foundation  for  the  modified  Wisconsin  silo  is  constructed  the 
same  as  for  a stave  silo.  Instead  of  eyebolts,  use  anchor  bolts  16 


44 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  589. 


inches  long.  These  should  be  embedded  in  the  foumhition  wall  G 
feet  aj)art  and  d inches  from  the  inside  edge,  extending  5 inches  above 
the  top  of  the  wall.  (See  fig.  87.) 

SILLS  AND  PLATES. 

The  sills  and  plates  are  formed  of  two  thicknesses  of  2 by  4 incli 
pieces,  2 feet  long,  with  the  ends  beveled  to  form  a circle.  The  proper 
bevel  may  be  determined  in  the  following  manner:  From  the  center 
stake  used  in  laying  out  the  foundation  wall  draw  a circle  on  top  of 
the  foundation  wall  1 inch  from  the  inside  edge.  At  any  point  on 
this  line  lay  a 2 by  4 inch  piece,  2 feet  long,  with  both  ends  at  equal 
distances  from  the  center;  then  use  a slat  with  one  edge  on  the  center 
])oint  of  the  stake  and  let  the  same  edge  on  the  other  end  of  the  slat 


Fig.  33. — Method  of  •obtaining  bevel  ends  for  sill  and  plate. 

strike  the  outer  corner  of  the  2 by  4 piece.  A line  drawn  along  the 
slat  across  the  2 by  4 piece  will  give  the  proper  angle,  or  the  bevel. 
The  same  process  will  give  the  bevel  for  the  other  end  of  the  2 by  4 
piece.  (See  fig.  33.) 

Use  this  piece  as  a pattern  in  cutting  pieces  enough  to  form  the 
double  circle  for  both  sill  and  plate.  The  number  needed  will  depend 
on  the  diameter  of  the  intended  silo.  After  cutting  several  pieces, 
lay  them  along  the  wall  and  note  how  they  fit  and  make  any  neces- 
sary changes.  When  all  of  the  pieces  are  cut  lay  them  out  on  the 
wall  along  the  line  1 inch  from  the  inside  edge  of  the  wall,  boring  the 
necessary  holes  for  the  anchor  bolts.  On  this  layer  place  the  second 
course,  breaking  the  joints,  then  nail  the  two  rings  together  and 
tighten  up  the  nuts  on  the  anchor  bolts. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


45 


SCAFFOLDING. 


As  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  a scaffold  inside  the- silo  to  jnit  on 
the  sheathing,  it  is  preferable  to  pnt  it  np  before  the  stnds  are  in 
position.  It  can  easily  he  made  by  standing  up  a 
pole  in  the  center  of  the  silo,  with  about  six  others 
around  it,  placed  about  18  inches  inside  the  foun- 
dation wall.  Then  brace  these  poles  together,  and 
wherever  a stage  is  desired,  nail  pieces  from  the  center 
pole  to  each  of  the  outer  poles,  on  which  boards  may 
he  laid. 


STUDDING. 


The  size  of  the  studding  used  in  the  modified  Wis- 
consin silo  is  2 by  4 mches,  and  if  not  long  enough  to 
reach  the  desired  height,  they  can  he  spliced  with  1 
hy  4 inch  pieces,  4 feet  hmg,  nailed  on  each  side  over 
the  joint.  (See  fig.  34.)  Whenever  it  is  necessary 
to  splice  the  studs  the  pieces  should  he  of  two  differ- 
ent lengths,  such  as  12  feet  and  16  feet  for  a 28-foot 
silo,  and  in  setting  up  the  studding  the  long  and 
short  pieces  should  alternate,  so  that  all  the  splices 
will  not  come  at  the  same  height  from  the  foundation. 

It  is  preferable  to  do  this  splicing  before  the  studs  eig.  34.— Method  for 
are  placed  in  position.  Wlien  all  are  spliced  and  studding, 

cut  to  equal  length  they  should  he  placed  1 foot  apart  from  center  to 
center,  with  the  edge  1 inch  from  the  inner  edge  of  the  foundation  wall, 
or  in  line  with  the  circle  ])reviously  marked  out  in 
laying  the  siU,  and  then  toenailed  to  the  sill.  Great 
care  should  he  exercised  to  have  the  studs  plumb  on 
all  sides  and  well  braced  to  the  inside  scaffold  so  that 
the  top  of  the  silo  will  form  a perfect  circle.  The  plate 
can  he  nailed  on  as  the  studs  are  set.  These  should 
he  laid  in  the  same  way  as  the  sill,  being  careful  to 
nail  them  firmly  to  the  top  of  the  studs. 

At  least  two  hoops  formed  from  the  thin  sheatii- 
ing  should  be  nailed  around  the  outside  of  the  stud- 
ding to  keep  them  from  bulging  while  the  sheath- 
ing is  being  nailed  on.  These  hoops  can  he  removed 
after  the  sheathing  has  been  placed  on  the  inside. 


zzzi 


STUDDING  FOR  DOORS. 


It  is  preferable  to  set  the  door  studs  before  the 
others  are  placed,  so  as  to  avoid  trouble  in  getting  the 
Fig.  35.— Method  for  Jqqj.  right 'place.  The  doorposts  should 

splicing  doorposts.  i i i i i p i i i 

be  4 by  4 mches  and  long  enough  for  the  height  of 
the  silo.  If  not,  they  may  be  spliced  by  halving  and  bolting.  (See 
fig.  35.)  Set  them  up  to  the  line  1 inch  from  the  inside  edge  of  the 


46 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  589. 


foundation  wall,  leaving  a 24-incli  sjiaco  between.  Toenail  securely 
to  the  sill.  The  openings  for  the  doors  are  made  by  nailing  in 


Fig.  36. — Del  ails  of  construction  of  modified  Wisconsin  silo;  a and  b,  detail  of  door  opening;  c,  sectional 

view  of  foundation  and  wall. 


headers  and  sills  at  the  places  where  the  doors  are  desired,  leaving 
tlie  spaces  open  when  the  inside  sheathing  is  put  on.  For  the  size  of 
the  openings  see  figure  36a. 


HOMEMADE  SILOS. 


47 


SHEATHING. 


The  sheathing  will  consist  of  ^ by  6 inch  material.  Start  at  the 
bottom  and  work  upward.  To  prevent  uneven  bending,  tlie  joints 
of  the  sheathing  should  come  on  different  studs.  At  the  door  open- 
ings the  sheathing  should  be  cut  back  1 inch  from  inside  edge  of  door- 
posts to  form  a rabbet  into  which  the  doors  should  fit.  (See  fig.  366.) 

Two  courses  of  the  sheathing  are  })ut  on  the  inside  with  a course 
of  acid-proof  building  paper  between.  (See  fig.  36c,  which  is  a sec- 
tional view  of  the  foundation  and  wall  through  the  door  opening.) 
In  placing  the  sheathing  see  that  all  seams  and  joints  are  broken, 
that  is,  so  that  the  cracks  and  joints  in  the  first  course  will  not 
come  opposite  to  those  of  the  second. 

It  will  be  more  convenient  if  these  two 
courses  are  carried  up  to  the  top  simulta- 
neously. 

DOORS. 

Tlie  doors  are  made  of  two  thicknesses  of 
1 by  6 inch  tongued-and-grooved  flooring, 
with  building  paper  between,  the  inside 
course  to  fit  neatly  in  the  opening.  The 
inside  course  should  be  vertical  and  the 
outside  course  horizontal.  (Soe  fig.  37.) 

A 1 by  3 inch  strip  is  then  nailed  around 
the  door  openings  1 inch  from  the  inside 
to  form  the  outside  door  jambs. 

ROOF,  FLOOR,  LADDER,  AND  CHUTE. 

These  are  constructed  just  tlie  same  as 
for  a stave  silo. 

BILLS  OF  MATERIALS. 


Fig.  3.7. — Door  for  modified  Wisconsin 
silo  (outside  view). 


One  of  the  main  questions  which  will  confront  the  farmer  who 
undertakes  to  build  his  own  silo  is,  ^^What  materials  shall  I need  and 
how  much  of  each  kindf’  Owing  to  the  variation  in  size  of  silos,  it 
is  impracticable  to  give  such  information  in  detail  here.  If  any 
farmer  who  desires  such  information  will  address  a request  to  the 
Dairy  Division,  Bureau  of  Animal  Indnstry,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  stating  the  size  and  kind  of  silo  he  intends  to 
build,  a complete  list  of  the  materials  needed  will  be  forwarded  to 
him  free  of  cost. 


o 


WASHINGTON:  GOVEHNMKNT  FUINTING  OFFICE:  1914 


-n  3 


U.S.DEPARTMENT  .OF  AGRICULTURE 


April  23.  1914. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


CONTENTS. 


Losses  of  live  stock 

Losses  of  hogs 

How  to  use  anti-hog-cholera  serum 

Losses  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses 

'-.lonthly  A’ariation  in  numbers  of  farm  animals 

'Vinter  wheat  forecast 

Florida  and  California  crop  report 

' /Oiiisiana  sugar  crop  of  1913 

'rend  of  prices  of  farm  products 


Page. 

1 

1 

3 


10 

10 

11 

12 


LOSSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK. 

The  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  lias  re- 
ciyed  estimates  from  its  correspondents  and  agents  concerning  losses 
r live  stock  from  diseases  and  from  exposure  during  the  past  year, 
id  their  relative  condition  on  April  1,  from  which  the  following 
•mmary  is  made: 

LOSSES  OF  HOGS. 

The  losses  of  swine  from  disease  are  estimated  at  119  to  every  1,000 
-gs  in  the  country,  which  exceeds  last  year’s  heavy  loss  of  110  per 
000,  and  the  average  yearly  loss  in  the  preceding  10  years  of  54.9 
r 1,000.  Probably  more  than  90  per  cent  of  the  loss  was  from 
olera.  The  percentage  of  loss  applied  to  the  estimated  number  of 


TIME  OF  ISSUANCE  AND  SCOPE  OF  MAY  CROP  REPORT. 

1.  summary  of  the  May  crop  report  of  the  Bui’eau  of  Statistics  will  be  issued  on  Thurs- 
V,  May  7,  at  2.15  p.  m.  (eastern  time).  The  report  will  give  an  estimate  of  the 
•„ijage  of  winter  wheat  remaining  on  May  1 to  be  harvested;  the  condition  on  May  1 
> winter  wheat,  rye,  meadow  mowing  lands,  and  pastures;  farm  supplies  of  hay  on 
' W 1;  the  per  cent  done  on  May  1 of  the  total  spring  plowing  contemplated,  and  the 
" cent  of  spring  planting  done  on  May  1,  1914,  with  comparisons. 


39357°— 14 1 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  590. 


hogs  on  January  1 indicates  a total  loss  of  7;0{)5,000  head,  which,  at 
$10.40,  the  value  per  head  on  January  1,  indicates  a loss  of  $73,000,000. 
The  average  weight  of  a hog  on  the  farm  is  about  150  pounds,  there-  ^ 
fore  more  than  one  billion  pounds  of  hog  meat  were  destroyed  by  dis- 
ease, mostly  cholera.  A billion  pounds  live  weight  produce  nearly 
800,000,000  pounds  of  dressed  meat  and  lard.  This  amount  would 
be  sufficient  to  furnish  every  family  of  the  United  States  (average, 
4J  persons)  about  40  pounds.  If  there  had  been  no  such  loss,  prob- 
ably increasing  scarcity  of  meat  would  have  been  largely  prevented. 

THIRD  EPIDEMIC  OF  HOG  CHOLERA. 

The  country  is  passing  through  the  third  serious  epidemic  of  hog 
cholera  of  the  past  30  years.  The  first  period  reached  its  climax  in 
1886  to  1887,  when  the  loss  amounted  to  about  134  per  1,000  head  in 
one  year.  The  second  outbreak  developed  in  1894,  and  reached  its 
climax  in  1896  to  1897,  when  losses  amounted  to  144  per  1,000  head. 
The  present  extensive  epidemic  of  hog  cholera  began  to  be  serious  in 
1911;  during  the  10  prior  years  the  loss  of  swine  ranged  from  45  to 
58  per  1,000  per  year;  in  1911  it  jumped  to  89,  then  to  110  in  1912, 
and  to  119  last  year.  It  has  thoroughly  ravaged  the  heart  of  the  hog- 
producing  belt  during  the  year  just  past.  In  the  State  of  Iowa  alone, 
losses  amounted  to  nearly  1,800,000  swme,  over  a fourth  of  the  entire 
number  in  the  State.  In  many  counties  over  half  were  lost,  and  in 
some  townships  over  nine- tenths. 

LOSSES  OF  SWINE  USUALLY  HEAVIEST  IN  SOUTHERN  STATES. 

The  losses  of  swine  from  disease  are  \isually  heaviest  in  southern 
States  and  lightest  in  northern  States.  Estimates  of  losses  have  been 
kept  for  30  years.  The  States  showing  the  heaviest  average  yearly 
loss  in  these  30  years  are,  m their  order,  Arkansas,  119  per  1,000; 
Louisiana,  110;  Florida,  109;  the  States  showing  the  lightest  losses 
are,  Maine  19,  Wyoming  19,  New  Hampshire  22.  In  Georgia  the 
average  is  94,  in  Alabama  and  Mississippi  each  92;  in  Texas  66; 
whereas  in  New  York  the  average  is  26,  m Michigan  34,  in  Minnesota 
46,  in  North  Dakota  31,  and  in  Washington  and  Oregon  26. 

HOG  CHOLERA  LOSSES  HEAVIEST  IN  NORTHERN  STATES  IN  1913. 

The  epidemic  has  abated  somewhat  in  the  past  year,  as  compared 
vdth  the  preceding  year,  in  most  southern  States,  but  has  increased 
greatly  in  the  northern  States.  Thus,  in  Florida  the  loss  has  de- 
creased from  170  per  1,000  in  1912  to  150  in  1913;  in  Georgia  from  165 
to  90;  in  iUabama  from  110  to  100;  in  Mississippi  from  154  to  104;  in 
Kentucky  from  95  to  90;  in  Missouri  from  175  to  90;  whereas  in  Iowa 
the  loss  has  increased  from  160  per  thousand  in  1912  to  255  per 
thousand  in  1913,  in  Minnesota  from  55  to  214,  in  Nebraska  from  110 
to  175,  in  Soutli  Dakota  from  38  to  230,  and  in  North  Dakota  from 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


3 


20  to  75.  The  tendency  of  the  three  epidemics  mentioned  appears  to 
have  been,  in  a general  way,  to  move  as  a wave  from  south  and  east 
to  north  and  west. 

CONDITION  OF  SWINE,  APRIL,  1914. 

The  condition  as  to  healthfulness  of  hogs  on  April  1,  1914,  was  given 
as  91.6  per  cent  of  normal,  which  compares  with  91.4  per  cent  given 
a year  ago  and  94.4,  the  average  of  the  past  ten  years. 

The  number  of  breeding  sows  in  the  United  States  on  April  1 is 
estimated  to  be  about  101  per  cent  of  the  number  held  a year  ago, 
and  about  the  same  number  as  were  held  two  years  ago. 


HOW  TO  USE  ANTUHOG=CHOLERA  SERUM. 

At  a recent  conference  of  Federal  and  State  officials  in  charge  of 
hog-cholera  work  the  methods  of  applying  the  serum  in  practice 
were  considered.  There  are  two  methods.  In  one  the  serum  alone 
is  used,  producing  immunity  lasting  from  30  to  90  days;  in  the  other 
the  virus  of  hog  cholera  and  the  serum  are  injected  simultaneously — 
that  is,  virus  at  one  point  and  serum  at  another.  This  latter  is 
known  as  the  ‘^simultaneous  method^’  and  will  produce  active  or 
lasting  immunity.  If  the  serum  used  in  this  simultaneous  treat- 
ment is  not  good,  or  if  the  mode  of  application  is  faulty,  disease 
may  be  set  up  in  the  treated  herd.  For  this  reason  it  was  the  gen- 
eral consensus  of  opinion  at  the  conference  that  the  simultaneous 
method  should  be  used  only  by  those  who  have  had  special  train- 
ing, and  it  was  agreed  that  the  ideal  arrangement  would  be  to  allow 
its  use  only  by  Federal  and  State  veterinary  officers. 

The  serum-alone  treatment,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be  given  by 
anyone  without  danger  of  causing  hog  cholera.  If  the  serum  is 
good  the  farmer  may  give  it  to  his  hogs  without  fear,  provided  it 
is  administered  in  the  proper  way.  I^ffiile  it  would  no  doubt  be 
best  to  have  even  the  serum  alone  always  administered  by  a skilled 
agent,  farmers  may  obtain  good  results  if  proper  care  is  used.  The 
farmer  should  remember  that  the  serum-alone  treatment  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  simultaneous  treatment.  The  following  advice  re- 
garding the  use  of  serum  is  offered  for  farmers  who  can  not  obtain 
the  services  of  a skilled  agent: 

USE  OF  RELIABLE  SERUM  IMPORTANT. 

All  serum  can  not  be  depended  upon  and  farmers  are  cautioned 
against  putting  implicit  confidence  in  a serum  merely  because  it  is 
labeled  “Anti-Hog-Cholera.’’  The  serum  must  be  prepared  right 
in  order  to  protect  hogs.  Farmers  should  use  every  effort  to  get  a 
good  reliable  serum  from  the  State  college  or  from  a reliable  dealer. 


4 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  590. 


Aiiti-hog-cholera  serum  is  most  efTectivc  when  used  as  a preven- 
tive. It  wnll  also  cure  a large  number  of  hogs  in  the  early  stages  of 
the  disease.  It  is  of  much  less  value,  however,  for  hogs  that  are 
visibly  sick.  The  farmer  should  make  careful  preparations  before 
beginning  the  inoculation.  Hogs  that  are  sick  should  be  separated 
from  the  well  and  marked  so  as  to  distinguish  them.  The  pen  or 
inclosure  where  the  injections  are  made  should  be  clean  and  free 
from  dust. 

HOW  TO  ADMINISTER  SERUM. 

The  serum  is  administered  by  injecting  it  deep  under  the  skin 
with  a hypodermic  syringe.  Before  beginning  the  injection  of  a 
herd,  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  syringes  and  needles  are 
not  only  absolutely  clean  but  that  they  have  been  previously  boiled 
in  water  for  10  or  15  minutes.  The  purpose  of  the  boiling  is  to 
kill  the  germs  that  may  be  on  the  instruments.  Therefore,  both 
needle  and  syringe  should  be  kept  clean  and  not  allowed  to  become 
soiled  during  use,  as  by  being  laid  on  a dirty  plank,  dropped  on  the 
ground,  or  touched  with  dirty  hands.  It  is  a good  idea  to  spread  a 
clean  towel  on  the  plank  or  table  where  the  work  is  being  done. 
Before  using,  the  serum  should  be  poured  into  some  receptacle  with 
a cover  (as  a jelly  glass  with  a tin  to])),  both  the  receptacle  and  cover 
having  been  sterilized  by  boiling  in  water  before  use.  The  glass 
should  be  allowed  to  cool  before  the  serum  is  poured  into  it,  and 
should  be  always  covered  except  when  serum  is  being  taken  from  it. 

The  serum  is  injected  directly  into  the  tissues  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  thigh  or,  better,  into  the  loose  tissues  between  the  foreleg  and  the 
body.  Tlie  needle  is  inserted  into  the  skin  perpendicularly  to  a depth 
of  from  one-half  to  1 inch,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  hog.  Before 
the  injection  is  made  the  skin  of  the  hog  over  the  point  selected  for 
injection  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  by  washing  with  soap  and 
water,  and  the  surface  then  scrubbed  with  some  reliable  disinfectant, 
such  as  compound  solution  of  cresol  (U.  S.  P.).  This  disinfectant 
can  be  procured  at  drug  stores,  and  should  be  diluted  before  use  by 
adding  1 part  of  it  to  30  parts  of  soft  water. 

CARE  AS  TO  THE  DOSE. 

Care  should  be  used  in  estimating  the  weight  of  hogs,  because  the 
amount  of  serum  required  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  hog  injected. 
The  usual  dose  is  commonly  given  on  the  package  in  which  the  serum 
comes.  Be  careful  not  to  underestimate.  Overestimate  rather  than 
underestimate,  and  thereby  be  sure  of  giving  an  ample  dose  of  serum. 
After  the  injections  are  made,  the  hogs  should  be  turned  into  a clean 
yard,  free  from  mu  dholes  and  excessive  dust.  The  hogs  should  be 
kept  in  this  inclosure  for  several  da^^s  at  least  after  the  injection,  to 


THE  AGRICULTUEAL  OUTLOOK. 


5 


ejiable  the  puncture  wounds  to  heal  thoroughly.  They  should  be 
given  soft;  easily  digested  food. 

Every  farmer  shoidd  keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  ijijections  he 
makeS;  so  that  he  wall  know  what  success  has  attended  the  treatment. 
He  should  make  a record  of  the  number  of  hogs  that  died  from  hog 
cholera  before  treatment;  the  number  sick  and  the  number  apparently 
well  at  the  time  of  treatment;  and  he  should  later  keep  a record  of  the 
number  of  sick  and  well  ones  that  died  following  treatment.  Keep- 
ing these  records  may  enable  him  to  determine  whether  or  not  the 
serum  he  used  was  good;  and  it  may  also  show  whether  or  not  the 
work  was  properly  done.  If  an}^  hogs  develop  abscesses  at  the  point 
of  injection;  a note  should  be  made  of  the  fact;  keeping  account  of 
the  number.  Abscesses  indicate  that  the  serum  was  not  right  or  that 
the  work  was  not  properly  done. 

SANITARY  PRINCIPLES  MUST  BE  OBSERVED. 

The  proverb  that  ‘^An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a pound  of 
cure  ’’  is  especially  applicable  to  hog  cholera;  and  cooperation  among 
farmers  in  combating  the  disease  is  very  important.  Wlien  hog 
cholera  breaks  out  on  a farm  the  farmers  in  the  neighborhood  should 
join  in  a strong  effort  to  confine  the  disease  to  the  one  farm  where  it 
already  existS;  by  instituting  a strict  quarantine;  and  alsO;  when 
possible;  by  the  administration  of  the  protective  serum  to  the  droves 
on  adjoining  farms.  It  is  a mistake  to  neglect  timely  sanitary 
precautions  and  to  rely  wholly  on  the  use  of  serum.  The  serum  is 
useful  not  so  much  for  curing  hogs  sick  with  the  disease  as  for  pre- 
venting other  hogs  from  taking  it. 

Every  farmer  should  make  absolutely  certain  that  no  dirt  or 
implement  is  brought  from  an  infected  hog  lot  into  another  hog  lot. 
Hog  cholera  can  be  carried  in  dirt  on  shoeS;  on  wagon  wheels;  or  on 
the  feet  of  dogs.  It  has  been  proved  that  a pen  of  hogs  infected 
with  hog  cholera  can  be  kept  within  10  feet  of  a well  herd  without 
communicating  the  disease;  provided  no  dirt  or  implement  or  other 
object  is  moved  from  the  former  to  the  latter  pen.  If,  however;  the 
pen  with  the  uninfected  hogs  should  be  cleaned  with  a hoe  or  shovel 
that  has  been  used  in  the  infected  peii;  the  well  herd  would  be 
almost  certain  to  get  the  disease.  HogS;  crow’S;  and  buzzards  can 
transport  particles  of  flesh  from  dead  hogs  and  thus  carry  the  disease. 

The  following  precautions  are  recommended  for  keeping  the 
contagion  from  an  uninfected  drove: 

(1)  Do  not  locate  hog  lots  near  a public  high W' ay;  a railroad;  or  a 
stream.  The  germ  of  hog  cholera  may  be  carried  along  any  one  of 
these  avenues. 

(2)  Do  not  allow  strangers  or  neighbors  to  enter  your  hog  lotS; 
and  do  not  go  into  your  neighbors'  lots.  If  it  is  absolutely  necessary 


6 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  590. 


to  pass  from  one  liog  lot  into  another,  first  clean  your  shoes  carefully 
and  then  wash  them  with  a 3 per  cent  solution  of  the  compound 
solution  of  cresol  (U.  S.  P.). 

(3)  Do  not  put  new  stock,  either  hogs  or  cattle,  in  lots  with  a 
herd  already  on  the  farm.  JN’ewly  purchased  hogs  should  be  put  in 
separate  inclosures  well  separated  from  the  herd  on  the  farm  and 
kept  under  observation  for  three  weeks,  because  practically  all  stock 
cars,  unloading  chutes,  and  pens  are  infected  with  hog  cholera,  and 
hogs  shipped  by  rail  are  therefore  apt  to  contract  hog  cholera. 
Freight  cars  and  other  conveyances  which  have  carried  infected  stock 
should  be  properly  disinfected  after  unloading. 

(4)  Hogs  sent  to  fairs  should  be  quarantined  for  at  least  three 
weeks  after  they  return  to  the  farm. 

(5)  If  hog  cholera  breaks  out  on  a farm,  separate  the  sick  from  the 
apparently  healthy  animals,  and  burn  all  carcasses  of  dead  animals 
on  the  day  of  death.  Do  not  leave  them  unburned,  for  this  will 
endanger  all  other  farmers  in  the  neighborhood.  The  prevailing 
practice  of  rushing  sick  herds  to  market  should  be  discouraged. 
Treatment  with  the  serum  should  be  tried  instead. 

(6)  If,  after  the  observance  of  all  possible  precautions,  hog  cholera 
appears  on  your  farm,  notify  the  State  veterinarian  or  State  agri- 
cultural college  and  secure  serum  for  the  treatment  of  those  not 
affected.  The  early  application  of  this  serum  is  essential.  The 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  does  not  distrihute  serum  direct 
to  farmers. 

Some  of  these  precautions  may  seem  unnecessary  and  troublesome, 
but  they  do  not  cost  much,  and  they  are  very  valuable  preventive 
measures. 

At  this  time  it  is  impracticable  to  treat  every  hog  in  the  United 
States  with  the  antihog-cholera  serum.  In  many  States  the  authori- 
ties can  not  supply  enough  serum  to  treat  the  infected  and  exposed 
herds,  to  say  nothing  of  making  immune  all  herds  that  are  not 
affected.  When  an  outbreak  is  located,  the  most  effective  plan  is  to 
treat  immediately  all  the  well  hogs  in  the  infected  herd,  as  well  as  the 
hogs  in  herds  located  immediately  adjoining  the  seat  of  the  outbreak, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  wider  spread  of  the  disease.  At  the  same  time, 
neighboring  farmers  should  keep  away  from  the  infected  farm,  and 
the  owner  of  the  diseased  hogs  should  be  careful  not  to  go  into  other 
farmers’  lots.  When  the  cholera  has  abated,  the  yards  in  which  the 
sick  hogs  were  kept  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected. 

Where  serum  is  not  available,  the  simple  precautions  above  given 
will,  in  many  cases,  prevent  the  spread  of  the  contagion.  These  pre- 
cautionary measures  should  be  used  even  where  serum  can  be  ob- 
tained, because  it  is  far  better  to  keep  hog  cholera  out  of  the  drove 
than  to  rely  on  the  use  of  the  serum  after  the  disease  has  appeared. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


7 


Ilog  cholera,  in  the  epidemic  of  1913,  caused  an  estimated  loss  for 
the  year  of  about  $65,000,000.  No  other  animal  disease  produces  such 
a loss.  It  is  estimated  that  in  1913  there  were  107  hogs  lost  per  1,000 
from  cholera,  and  indications  point  to  a further  increase  in  this  dis- 
ease unless  preventive  measures  are  used.  Such  enormous  loss  of  a 
valuable  food  animal  is  nothing  short  of  a calamity. 

To  combat  this  there  must  be  honest  and  earnest  cooperation 
between  all  the  interests  involved,  including  the  scientists  and  vet- 
erinarians, farmers,  common  carriers,  and  packing  interests.  State 
and  Federal  authorities  must  work  in  absolute  harmony,  and  all 
concerned  must  endeavor  to  suppress  personal  opinions  on  relatively 
unimportant  matters  and  aid  in  the  adoption  of  uniform  methods 
throughout  the  entire  country. 

The  control  and  final  eradication  of  hog  cholera  will  depend  largely 
on  the  education  of  farmers  to  the  importance  of  obser^dng  sanitary 
principles. 


LOSSES  OF  CATTLE. 

Losses  of  cattle  from  disease  during  the  past  year  are  estimated  to 
be  19.8  per  thousand  head,  which  compares  with  20.5  similarly  esti- 
mated last  year  and  20.5,  the  10-year  average  of  such  losses.  Losses 
from  exposure  are  estimated  to  be  10.9  per  thousand,  which  com- 
pares with  14.1  similarly  estimated  last  year  and  16.5,  the  10-year 
average  of  such  losses.  The  total  losses  per  thousand,  from  both 
disease  and  exposure,  if  applied  to  the  estimated  number  and  value 
of  cattle  on  January  1,  would  indicate  a loss  of  about  1,737,000,  at 
$39.50  per  head,  a total  of  $68,611,000. 

The  condition  as  to  healthfulness  of  cattle  on  April  1,  1914,  was 
given  as  96.5  per  cent  of  normal,  which  compares  with  96  similarly 
estimated  a year  ago  and  94,  the  average  for  10  years. 

LOSSES  AND  CONDITION  OF  SHEEP. 

Losses  of  sheep  from  disease  during  the  past  year  are  estimated  to 
be  about  21.7  per  thousand,  which  compares  with  24.6  similarly  esti- 
mated a year  ago  and  25.2,  the  10-year  average  of  such  losses.  Losses 
from  exposure  are  estimated  to  be  21  per  thousand,  wdiich  compares 
v/ith  25.1  similarly  estimated  a year  ago  and  32.8,  the  10-year  average. 
The  year  is  thus  seen  to  have  been  favorable.  The  total  losses  per 
thousand  from  both  disease  and  exposure,  if  applied  to  the  approxi- 
mate numbers  and  values  on  January  1,  would  indicate  a loss  of 
about  2,124,000  head,  at  $4.04,  a total  of  $8,581,000. 

The  condition  as  to  healthfulness  of  sheep  on  April  1,  1914,  was 
given  as  96.6  per  cent  of  normal,  which  compares  with  96  similarly 
estimated  a year  ago  and  94.8,  the  lO-year  average. 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIX  590. 


LOSSES  OF  MEAT  ANIMALS. 

It  may  be  observed  from  the  figures  given  above  that  the  losses  of 
cattle  and  sheep,  both  from  disease  and  from  exposure,  were  less  than 
normal.  However,  the  total  losses  of  meat  animals,  cattle,  hogs,  and 
sheep  combined,  from  disease  and  exposure,  are  enormous.  On  the 
basis  of  farm  values  January  1 the  losses  from  disease  of  cattle,  hogs, 
and  sheep  aggregated  in  value  about  $122,000,000,  and  losses  from 
exposure  of  cattle  and  sheep  about  $28,000,000 — a total  loss  in  meat 
animals  from  disease  and  exposure  in  one  year  of  about  $150,000,000 — 
an  amount  which  would  have  been  more  than  sufficient  to  furnish  a 
normal  year’s  supply  of  meat  to  the  entire  population  of  the  New 
England  States. 

LOSSES  AND  CONDITION  OF  HORSES. 

The  losses  of  farm  horses  and  mules  from  disease  durmg  the  past 
3mar  are  estimated  to  be  about  20.6  per  thousand,  which  compares  with 

22.6  similarly  estimated  a year  ago.  If  the  estimated  loss  of  20.6  per 
tliousand  be  applied  to  the  numbers  and  values  of  horses  and  mules 
on  farms  January  1,  it  would  indicate  a total  loss  of  approximately 
523,000  head,  at  $113  per  head,  or  a total  of  $59,100,000. 

The  condition  as  to  hcalthfulness  of  horses  and  mules  on  April  1, 
1914,  is  estimated  as  96.4  per  cent  of  normal,  which  compares  with 

96.7  similarly  estimated  a year  ago  and  about  96,  the  lO-year  average. 
Detailed  estimates  by  States  of  losses  and  condition  of  live  stock 

are  given  on  pages  14-17. 


MONTHLY  VARIATION  IN  NUMBERS  OF  FARM  ANIMALS. 

The  number  of  animals  on  the  farms  of  the  country  is  by  no  means 
uniform  throughout  the  year,  but  varies  from  month  to  month.  The 
bulk  of  the  animals  are  born  in  the  spring  months;  but  their  sale  or 
slaughter  is  more  general  in  the  fall  and  winter  months.  Therefore 
there  is  a normal  seasonal  variation  in  the  total  stocks  on  hand,  just 
as  there  is  of  crops  which  are  gathered  in  the  fall  (when  supplies  are 
large)  and  marketed  through  the  year.  The  extent  of  this  variation 
lias  recently  been  investigated  in  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  (Crop 
Estimates) . 

This  seasonal  variation  in  numbers  is  greatest  among  swine.  The 
number  of  swine  in  the  country  is  usually  smallest  in  the  latter  part 
of  February  or  early  March.  During  March,  April,  May,  and  June 
more  hogs  are  born  than  are  slaughtered,  and  consequently  the 
number  steadily  increases,  the  increase  from  March  1 to  July  1 being 
about  45  per  cent.  During  July  and  August  more  hogs  are  slaugh- 
tered than  are  born,  and  consequently  there  is  a slight  decline  in 
numbers.  Autumn  litters  cause  an  increase  in  numbers  in  Sep- 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


9 


tember  and  October.  The  maximum  number  of  the  year  is  reached 
about  October  1 , when  there  are  about  47  per  cent  more  hogs  in  the 
country  than  on  March  1. 

In  consequence  of  the  seasonal  variation  in  the  sup])Iy  of  live  stock 
the  results  of  a census  of  live  stock  would  be  affected  considerably  by 
the  particular  time  of  year  when  the  enumeration  is  made.  The 
census  of  1910  related  to  numbers  on  April  15;  the  census  of  1900 
related  to  numbers  on  June  1.  There  are  normally  about  18  per  cent 
more  hogs  in  the  country  on  June  1 than  on  April  15.  If  an  enumer- 
ation were  taken  in  the  autumn,  the  numbers  as  compared  vdth 
April  15  would  a])petir  to  be  about  21  per  cent  more. 

The  seasonal  variation  in  the  supply  of  sheep  is  almost  as  great  as 
of  swine.  The  low  ebb  of  supplies  is  about  February  1 ; spring  lamb- 


Diagram  showing  the  approximate  number  of  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep  on  farms 
of  the  United  States  on  the  first  of  each  month,  expressed  in  millions  of  head. 


ing,  beginning  in  February,  causes  a steady  increase  in  numbers 
during  February,  March,  April,  and  May.  About  June  1 the  number 
is  at  the  maximum  of  the  year;  the  lambing  period  is  over,  and  the 
slaughter  of  spring  lambs  as  well  as  of  sheep  results  in  a steady 
decline  each  month  until  the  following  February.  The  maximum 
number,  about  June  1,  is  nearly  41  per  cent  greater  than  the  minimum 
on  February  1.  The  numbers  on  June  1 are  estimated  to  be  nearly 
20  per  cent  more  than  on  April  15. 

There  is  less  variation  among  cattle  than  among  swine  and  sheep. 
The  minimum  number  is  about  February  1;  from  then  the  increase 
is  constant  until  about  July  1,  and  then  the  decrease  is  constant  until 
the  following  February.  The  maximum  number  (July  1)  is  about  14 
per  cent  more  than  the  minimum  (Feb.  1).  The  number  on  June  1 
is  estimated  to  be  about  5 per  cent  more  than  on  April  15. 

39357°— 14 2 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  500. 
WINTER-WHEAT  FORECAST. 


The  condition  of  winter  wheat  on  April  1 — viz,  95.6  per  cent  of  nor- 
mal— is  11.6  per  cent  higher  than  the  average  of  the  past  10  years. 
The  yield  per  acre  in  the  same  10  years  averaged  15  bushels;  an  in- 
crease of  11.5  per  cent  to  this  average  would  be  16.7  bushels. 

The  acreage  planted  last  fall  was  estimated  at  36,506,000  acres. 
Sixteen  and  seven-tenths  bushels  applied  to  this  acreage  gives  609,- 

650.000.  But  there  is  always  some  of  the  planted  area  abandoned 
before  harvest;  the  average  of  such  abandonment  in  the  past  10 
years  has  been  about  9.7  per  cent  of  the  area  planted.  If  this  aver- 
age of  abandonment  be  deducted  from  the  estimated  planted  area 
and  16.7  be  applied  to  the  remaining  amount,  a production  of  about 

551.000. 000  would  be  indicated. 

The  wheat  plant  wintered  unusually  well  and  it  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  the  10-year  average  of  abandonment  has  occurred  this 
year.  On  the  other  hand,  a crop  that  is  in  very  high  condition  on 
April  1,  as  is  the  case  this  year,  is  more  susceptible  to  depreciation 
later  in  the  season  than  a crop  having  a lower  condition  on  April  1. 
The  final  estimate  of  production  of  winter  wheat  in  1913  was 

623.561.000  bushels  (the  largest  ever  recorded),  and  in  1912  was 

399.919.000  bushels. 

Details  by  States  of  condition  on  April  1 of  winter  wheat  and  rye 
are  given  on  page  14. 


FLORIDA  AND  CALIFORNIA  CROPS. 

The  condition  on  April  1,  with  comparisons,  of  the  principal  crops 
in  Florida  and  California,  on  the  basis  of  100  representing  a normal,  is 
shown  in  Table  1 . 


Table  1. — Florida  and  California  crop  reports. 


Item. 

Florida. 

California. 

Apr.  1. 

Mar.  1, 

Apr.  1. 

Mar.  1, 
1914. 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1914. 

1914 

1913  1912 

Orange  trees 

102 

95 

103 

94 

98 

90 

Lemon  trees 

92 

94 

1 

85 

Lime  trees 

100 

100 

95 

97 

Crrapefniit  trees 

101 

97 

100 

90  1 

1 

Pineapples 

SO 

92 

90 

90 

j 

Peachas 

85 

88 

95 

1 

1 

i 

I’ears 

82 

79 

95 

1 

Strawberries 

90 

90 

88 

Pasture 

87 

95 

95 

87 

Cabbages 

82 

92 

87 

88 

1 

Tomatoes  _ 

80 

87 

90 

85 

1 

White  potatoes . 

92 

95 

91 

88  j 

1 

Celery 

190 

1 92  1 1 90 

94 

Cauliflower 

94 

94  95 

94 

J 

1 

1 

1 

1 Troduction  compared  with  a full  crop. 


THE  AGKICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


11 


LOUISIANA  SUGAR  CROP  OF  1913. 

The  sugar  made  in  Louisiana  from  the  croj)  of  cane  harvested  in 
1913,  according  to  an  enumeration  just  completed  by  tlie  Bureau 
of  Statistics  (Crop  Estimates),  amounted  to  292,698  short  tons  of 

2.000  pounds  eacli.  The  average  yield  of  sugar  was  139  pounds 
per  ton  of  cane  crushed,  or  about  3 pounds  less  than  in  1912.  The 
total  sugar  made  was  somewhat  less  than  double  the  amount  in  1912, 
but  about  60,000  tons  less  than  in  1911.  The  low  production  in  1913 
was  due  largely  to  shortage  in  the  yield  of  cane,  which  became  appar- 
ent towards  the  middle  or  end  of  the  harvest  season.  About  the 
middle  of  November,  1913,  indications  pointed  to  a total  of  over 
5,000,000  tons  of  cane  being  ground  for  sugar.  This  amount  proved 
to  be  too  higli,  the  actual  amount  crushed  for  sugar  being  about 

4.214.000  tons.  The  average  yield  of  cane  per  acre  in  1913  was  about  1 7 
tons.  The  average  in  1911  was  19  tons,  and  in  1912,  owing  to  floods, 
the  average  reached  the  abnormally  lov/  figure  of  11  tons  per  acre. 

The  length  of  the  1913  campaign  was,  on  an  average,  45  working 
days,  or  50  per  cent  longer  than  in  1912.  A few  factories,  however, 
extended  their  operations  considerably  longer;  a number  of  them 
worked  for  more  than  60  days  each. 

The  number  of  factories  which  made  sugar  in  1913  was  153.  At 
the  beginnmg  of  the  campaign  10  more  were  reported  to  be  engaged 
in  sugar  making,  but  of  this  number  several  made  sirup  only,  and 
others  were  not  in  operation. 

Details  concerning  the  production  of  sugar  and  the  quantity  of 
cane  used  are  given  in  Table  2,  which  shows  results  for  principal 
parishes. 


Table  2. — Cane-sugar  production  of  Louisiana,  1911,  1912,  and  1913. 


Sugar  made. 


Parish. 

Factories  in 
operation. 

Quantity. 

Average  per 
short  ton  of 
cane. 

Cane  used  for  sugar. 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1911 

1 

! 1912 

1913 

1911 

1912 

1 

1913 

No. 

No. 

No. 

Short 

tons. 

Short 

tons. 

Short 

tons. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Short 

tons. 

Short 

tons. 

Short 

tons. 

Ascension 

7 

7 

4 

14,496 

8, 342 

10, 808 

124 

134 

133 

234, 719 

124, 934 

163, 000 

Assumption 

23 

16 

17 

35, 950 

14,457 

28, 664 

107 

119 

124 

673, 263 

243, 864 

462, 000 

Iberia 

13 

9 

10 

29,  949 

10, 999 

15, 925 

129 

156 

156 

464, 491 

140, 932 

294, 000 

Iberville 

18 

11 

14 

23,  759 

7,942 

19, 187 

99 

112 

122 

481, 545 

141,581 

315,000 

Lafourche 

16 

9 

13 

42,  001 

11,  728 

35, 021 

119 

122 

131 

707,  764 

191,  714 

535,000 

St.  James 

20 

10 

17 

20,  760 

9, 368 

19, 970 

115 

97 

122 

361,537 

192, 537 

327,000 

St.  John 

8 

5 

8 

14,935 

11,  289 

13,  596 

108 

140 

115 

275,  536 

161,  790 

236, 000 

St.  Martin 

4 

3 

3 

13,  719 

5,382 

8, 114 

139 

173 

157 

197,614 

62, 165 

103,  000 

St.  Mary 

26 

15 

22 

57,  602 

25, 597 

54, 689 

133 

176 

165 

866,  744 

291,387 

663, 000 

Terrebonne 

14 

14 

13 

27, 462 

14,463 

24, 631 

124 

150 

140 

442, 218 

191, 984 

352,000 

West  Baton  Rouge... 

10 

10 

10 

17, 235 

9,328 

15,305 

no 

147 

136 

314,472 

127, 196 

225,  QOO 

Lafayette  and  Ver- 

milion   

5 

6 

6 

23, 480 

14,547 

23, 104 

140 

177 

168 

336, 427 

164, 580 

276,000 

Other  1 

24 

11 

16 

31, 526 

10, 131 

23, 684 

119 

158 

134 

530,  962 

127, 910 

353, 000 

Total,  Louisi- 

1 

1 

ana 

188 

126 

153^352, 874 

153, 573 

292, 698 

120 

142 

139 

5, 887,  2921 

! 

12,162, 574 

i 

4,214,000 

1 

1 Avoyelles,  Rapides,  St.  Landry,  East  Baton  Rouge,  Pointe  Coupee,  West  Feliciana,  Jefferson,  Orleans, 
Plaquemines,  and  St.  Charles. 


12 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  500. 


The  average  results  per  acre  and  per  factory  are  shown  in  Table  3. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  average  amount  of  sugar  made  per  acre  of 
cane  was  higher  in  1913  than  in  either  of  the  two  preceding  years. 
This  sugar  represents  mostly  raw  sugar,  averaging  roughly  96  de- 
grees polarization,  of  which  grade  100  pounds  are  regarded  as  equiva- 
lent to  about  90  pounds  of  refined  sugar. 

The  approximate  average  yield  of  refined  sugar  per  acre  of  cane 
crushed  would  be  equivalent  to  about  2,000  pounds  in  1911  and  1913 
and  1,300  pounds  in  1912.  The  average  yield  of  refined  beet  sugar 
in  the  United  States  in  1911  and  1912  was  2,400  pounds  per  acre  of 
beets,  or  about  400  pounds  more  sugar  per  acre  than  cane  sugar  in 
Louisiana  in  1911  and  1913. 

The  average  sugar  made  per  factory  in  Louisiana  was  larger  in 
1913  than  in  either  of  the  two  preceding  years,  while  the  cane  crushed 
for  sugar  averaged  less  per  factory  in  1913  than  in  1911.  Louisiana 
cane-sugar  factories  in  1911  and  1913  produced  each  an  average  of 
about  1,900  short  tons  of  raw  sugar,  which  is  equivalent  to  about 
1,700  tons  of  refined.  The  average  output  per  factory  in  the  beet- 
sugar  industry  in  the  United  States  was  9,100  tons  of  refined  sugar 
in  1911  and  9,500  in  1912. 

Complete  official  returns  of  the  Texas  sugar  output  have  not  been 
secured  for  1913,  but  the  total  production  is  probably  less  than  9,000 
short  tons,  and  possibly  as  low  as  5,000. 

Some  of  the  Texas  sugar  factories  are  located  in  the  region  extend- 
ing from  Houston  on  the  east  to  Victoria  on  the  west,  and  reaching 
southward  to  the  Gulf;  most  of  the  other  factories  are  in  the  lower 
part  of  tlie  Rio  Grande  Valley. 


Table  3. — Average  results  per  acre  and  per  factory,  and  average  length  of  campaign  in  the 
sugar  industry  of  Louisiana,  1911-1913. 


Number 

Average 
yield  of 
cane  per 
acre.i 

Average 
sugar  made 
per  acre  of 
cane.i 

Average  per  factory. 

! Average 
length  of 
cam- 
paign. 

Years. 

of  fac- 
tories. 

Sugar 

made. 

Cane  used 
for  sugar. 

1911 

188 

Short  tons. 
19 

Pounds. 

2,200 

1,500 

Short  tons. 
1,877 
1,219 

Short  tons. 
31,315 

Bays. 

1912 

12G 

11 

17,163 

30 

1913 

153 

17 

2,300 

1,913 

27,542 

45 

' Includes  only  cane  used  for  making  sugar. 

TREND  OF  PRICES  OF  FARM  PRODUCTS. 


The  level  of  prices  paid  producers  of  the  United  States  for  the 
principal  crops  increased  about  0.3  per  cent  during  March;  in  the 
})ast  six  years  the  price  level  has  increased  during  March  1.8  per  cent; 
thus,  the  increase  this  3^ear  is  less  than  usual. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


13 


On  April  1 the  index  figure  of  crop  prices  was  about  18.1  per  cent 
higher  than  a year  ago,  but  12.5  per  cent  lower  than  two  years  ago 
and  3.2  per  cent  higher  than  the  average  of  the  past  six  years  on 
April  1. 

The  level  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of  the  United  vStates  for  meat 
animals  increased  1.3  per  cent  during  the  month  from  February  15 
to  March  15,  which  compares  with  an  increase  of  5.7  per  cent  in  the 
same  period  a year  ago,  an  increase  of  2.7  per  cent  two  years  ago,  a 
decrease  of  1.7  per  cent  tlu*ee  years  ago,  and  an  increase  of  10.1  per 
cent  four  years  ago. 

It  thus  appears  that  tlie  advance  in  prices  in  meat  animals  in  the 
past  month  this  year  has  been  less  than  usual;  from  January  15  to 
February  15,  however,  the  advance  was  somewliat  greater  than  usual. 

On  March  15  the  average  (weighted)  prices  of  meat  animals — hogs, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  chickens— was  $7.37  per  100  jiounds,  which  is  4.1 
per  cent  higher  than  the  prevailing  price  a year  ago,  29.5  per  cent 
higher  than  two  years  ago,  21.1  per  cent  higher  than  three  years  ago, 
and  0.3  per  cent  lower  than  four  years  ago  on  March  15. 

A tabulation  of  prices  is  shown  on  pages  19-20. 


14 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  590. 


Table  4. — Winter  wheat  and  rye — Condition  on  Apr.  1,  1914,  with  corn.parisons. 


State  and  division. 

Winter  wheat. 

Itye. 

Condition. 

Condition. 

Apr.  1. 

Dec.  1, 
1913. 

Apr.  1. 

Dec.  1, 
1913. 

1914. 

1913. 

10-year 

aver- 

age. 

1914. 

j 

1913. 

10-year 

aver- 

age. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

i 

Per  ct.  1 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

98 

93 

94 

92 

96 

94 

92 

98 

94 

96 

96 

98 

New  Y ork 

95 

91 

88 

98 

94 

! 91 

90 

97 

New  Jersey 

91 

97 

90 

95 

91 

96 

92 

96 

Pennsylvania 

93 

96 

88 

97 

94 

1 95 

90 

97 

North  Atlantic 

93.3 

95.4 

88.1 

97.1 

93.6 

94.1 

90.0  j 

96.9 

Delaware 

91 

98 

90 

95 

90 

96 

91 

96 

Maryland 

93 

96 

89 

95 

91 

97 

91 

95 

\ irginia 

95 

97 

89 

95 

95 

94 

89 

97 

West  Virginia 

94 

91 

86 

95 

93 

91 

88 

94 

North  Carolina 

92 

95 

91 

95 

92 

92 

90 

97 

South  Carolina 

89 

89 

88 

95 

89 

90 

88 

97 

Georgia 

91 

91 

88 

92 

92 

92 

90 

93 

South  Atlantic 

93.2 

95.  7 

88.8 

94.8 

93.0 

93.3 

90.4 

96.3 

Ohio 

9G 

91 

80 

99 

96 

92 

84 

97 

Indiana 

97 

91 

81 

98 

96 

92 

87 

97 

lUiiiois 

98 

93 

84 

99 

97 

94 

90 

97 

Michigan 

92 

83 

84 

95 

91 

86 

87 

96 

Wisconsin 

85 

86 

90 

94 

87 

88 

92 

96 

North  Central  East 

96.4 

90.6 

82.0 

98.2 

90.6 

88  2 

88.6 

96.2 

Minnesota 

83 

92 

88 

82 

89 

93 

Iowa 

95 

90 

89 

96 

93 

92 

94 

97 

Missoui’i 

98 

93 

85 

98 

96 

93 

89 

99 

North  Dakota  

87 

83 

91 

South  Dakota  

87 

80 

88 

83 

91 

87 

Nebraska 

93 

92 

89 

86 

92 

90 

90 

86 

Kansas 

96 

90 

85 

100 

95 

92 

86 

99 

North  Central  West 

95.6 

91.1 

85.9 

96.3 

89.6 

! 84.7 

88.0 

1 91.9 

Kentucky 

96 

92 

85 

98 

94 

89 

85 

99 

Tennessee 

97 

93 

88 

96 

93 

89 

88 

97 

Alabama 

93 

94 

89 

92 

91 

91 

89 

95 

Mississippi 

■95 

89 

87 

91 

Texas 

92 

88 

81 

102 

81 

1 86 

79 

101 

Oklahoma 

97 

94 

82 

103 

97 

93 

85 

105 

Arkansas 

95 

90 

87 

99 

93 

87 

87 

100 

South  Central 

95.7 

92.3 

83.7 

101.0 

93.6 

90.3 

86.1 

98.6 

Montana,  

93 

93 

91 

94 

95 

96 

95 

Wyoming 

94 

93 



97 

97 

96 

94 

98 

Colorado 

94 

94 

91 

92 

93 

88 

89 

New  Mexinn 

94 

80 

98 

Arizona. 

95 

96 

96 

IJ  tah 

99 

95 

96 

96 

93 

98 

97 

Nevada. 

95 

95 

99 

Idaho 

98 

94 

97 

97 

94 

98 

96 

Washington 

97 

94 

92 

93 

100 

96 

94 

97 

Oregon 

102 

90 

93 

100 

98 

94 

97 

100 

California 

95 

72 

88 

100 

100 

85 

92 

100 

Far  Western 

97.0 

90.4 

92.3 

95.3 

96.3 

92.7 

94.2  j 

97.8 

United  States 

95.6 

91.6 

85.7 

97.2 

91.3 

89.3 

89.2 

95.3 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK, 


15 


Table  5. — Condition  of  horses  and  mules  and  of  cattle  Apr.  1,  and  estimated  losses  during 
the  year  ending  Mar.  SI,  1914,  with  comparisons. 


State. 

1 

lorses  and  mules. 

Cattle. 

Losses  from  disease. 

Condition 
Apr.  1. 

Losses  from  } 
disease. 

Losses  from 
exposure. 

Losses  from  disease 

and  exposure. 

Condition 
Apr.  1. 

Oi 

CO 

05 

10-year 

1 average. 

1914. 

05 

1913. 

10-year 

average.  \ 

a> 

CO 

10-year 

average.  | 

cn> 

CO 

O) 

1 0 - y e a r 
average. 

1 

1913. 

10-year 

1 average. 

(a) 

C) 

{“) 

No. 

P.c. 

P.c. 

P.C. 

(a) 

C) 

(“) 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

Number.  | 

P.c. 

P.c. 

P.c. 

Maine 

20 

25 

17 

2,200 

98 

97 

98 

15 

19 

15 

3 

2 

2 

4,  700 

98 

97 

98 

New  Hampshire 

20 

17 

16 

900 

99 

98 

98 

18 

18 

17 

3 

2 

4 

3,  400 

97 

98 

98 

Vermont 

16 

17 

16 

1,400 

99 

100 

99 

20 

18 

18 

2 

2 

3 

9, 500 

98 

99 

98 

Massachusetts 

25 

21 

17 

1,600 

97 

98 

98 

24 

21 

18 

1 

1 

2 

6,100 

98 

98 

97 

Rhode  Island 

17 

18 

18 

200 

99 

99 

98 

22, 

25 

19 

1 

1 

1 

800 

97 

97 

97 

Connecticut 

19 

21 

22 

900 

97 

97 

99 

18 

19 

18 

1 

4 

1 

3, 600 

97 

97 

98 

New  York 

23 

24 

20 

14,200 

98 

98 

98 

22; 

23 

22 

3 

4 

58, 500 

97 

97 

96 

New  Jersey 

16 

23 

20 

1,500 

98 

97 

97 

17| 

22 

22 

4 

4 

4,500 

97 

96 

95 

Pennsylvania 

22 

23 

18 

13,800 

97 

97 

97 

211 

23 

19 

4 

5 

4 

39, 400 

97 

97 

96 

Delaware 

21 

25 

22 

900 

97 

96 

96 

20 

30 

24 

4 

5 

11 

1,400 

97 

96 

93 

Maryland 

17 

25 

18 

3,200 

95 

96 

95 

20 

22 

16 

6 

8 

8 

7, 500 

94 

96 

91 

Virginia 

20 

25 

19 

8,200 

97 

96 

95 

20 

25 

20 

11 

11 

13 

24, 600] 

95 

94 

93 

West  Virginia 

17 

17 

17 

3,400 

96 

96 

95 

19 

17 

18 

11 

8 

11 

16,900 

95 

96 

94 

North  Carolina 

20 

21 

19 

7,400 

96 

96 

95 

20 

21 

21 

12 

12 

16 

21,600 

95 

95 

92 

South  Carolina 

24 

30 

24 

6,100 

95 

95 

94 

25: 

26 

25 

16 

18 

22 

16, 200 

92 

93 

91 

Georgia 

25 

30 

24 

11,200 

96 

94 

96 

30 

33 

26 

20 

23 

28 

53, 100' 

96' 

92 

91 

Florida 

30 

35 

31 

2,500 

97 

96 

95 

28! 

45 

36 

50 

36 

36 

67,300 

; 94 

91 

90 

Ohio 

23 

22 

17 

21,300 

97 

97 

96 

16! 

16 

16 

5 

5 

6 

36, 200 

97 

97 

95 

Indiana 

26 

22 

18 

24,  400 

95 

96 

96 

19 

18 

17 

7 

8 

7 

35, 000 

1 97 

96 

i 95 

Illinois 

28 

21 

18 

46,100 

96 

98 

98 

25 

19 

17 

8 

6 

6 

73, 700 

97 

98 

i '' 

Michigan 

19 

20 

18 

12, 500 

97 

96 

96 

16 

17 

16 

5 

8 

8 

31,000 

i 9” 

97 

1 9.5 

Wisconsin 

18 

17 

16 

12, 300 

97 

97 

97 

16 

15 

17 

3 

5 

6 

51,400 

1 98 

96 

i 96 

Minnesota 

17 

15 

19 

14,. 500 

98 

98 

97 

17 

16 

18 

6 

5 

10 

53,  700 

I 98 

98 

: 96 

Iowa 

19 

18 

17 

31,200 

98 

98 

98 

17 

20 

18 

5 

5 

7 

85,900 

: 98 

98 

97 

Missouri 

24 

21 

18 

34,100 

95 

95 

95 

18 

18 

19 

10 

12 

54,400 

1 

96 

i 

North  Dakota 

17 

20 

19 

12, 900 

97 

97 

96 

16 

12 

18 

7 

8 

18 

17, 800 

98 

98 

94 

South  Dakota 

15 

12 

16 

11,200 

97 

98 

97 

18 

12 

19 

5 

12 

18 

30, 600 

1 98 

98 

1 96 

Nebraska 

19 

31 

20 

21,500 

97 

97 

97 

18 

15 

22 

11 

30 

16 

72,  400 

97 

97 

95 

Kansas 

13 

35 

17 

17,300 

95 

97 

95 

16 

18 

16 

6 

15 

12 

49, 800 

! 94 

97 

1 94 

Kentucky 

22 

20 

21 

14,800 

94 

96 

94 

22 

! 20 

22 

12 

11 

14 

30, 900 

94 

96 

92 

Tennessee 

24 

25 

20 

14,800 

95 

96 

95 

23 

25 

24 

11 

15 

17 

28, 800 

94 

93 

92 

Alabama 

25 

26 

23 

10,  700 

96 

95 

95 

27 

27 

27 

22 

24 

24 

44, 200 

94 

93 

90 

Mississippi 

27 

31 

26 

14, 200 

95 

94 

94 

28 

35 

30 

24 

30 

30 

47,  400 

95 

92 

90 

Louisiana 

30 

24 

29 

9, 700 

94 

96 

94 

29 

33 

33 

26 

35 

44 

39, 100 

94 

89 

90 

Texas 

21 

23 

23 

41,300 

95 

96 

94 

24 

22 

23 

14 

21 

28 

237, 000 

97 

94 

91 

Oklahoma 

16 

' 20 

23 

16, 600 

96 

95 

93 

15 

19 

23 

10 

14 

20 

39, 500 

96 

96 

92 

Arkansas 

22 

i 26 

24 

11,200 

95 

95 

92 

23 

32 

32 

17 

18 

28 

, 34,000 

94 

94 

90 

Montana 

15 

! 20 

18 

5,600 

99 

97 

96 

17 

21 

20 

11 

15 

35 

1 24, 000 

98 

97 

93 

W voming 

14 

i 

24 

2,400 

100 

98 

98 

17 

10 

18 

17 

24 

30 

20, 000 

100 

99 

96 

Colorado 

16 

1 21 

20 

5,700 

98 

98 

97 

19 

21 

19 

25 

30 

29 

49,900 

97 

98 

95 

New  Mexico 

20 

1 16 

24 

4,200 

96 

97 

94 

20 

25 

22 

30 

20 

35 

49, 000 

92 

95 

92 

Arizona 

25 

20 

33 

3,000 

96 

95 

92 

20 

16 

25 

25 

37 

36 

34,900 

96 

92 

90 

Utah 

20 

1 22 

22 

2,800 

97 

98 

97 

16 

17 

19 

18 

20 

22 

15,100 

98 

98 

96 

Nevada 

21 

30 

24 

1,700 

99 

97 

95 

20 

22 

24 

20 

18 

27 

18,  400 

98 

98 

96 

Idaho 

20 

1 24 

18 

4,800 

99 

97 

96 

16 

19 

17 

15 

15 

22 

14,400 

99 

98 

96 

Washington 

15 

1 20 

1 22 

4,800 

99 

98 

97 

13 

19 

16 

4 

12 

17 

7,  400 

98 

98 

96 

Oregon 

17 

22 

: 17 

5, 300 

99 

98 

97 

12 

14 

15 

10 

13 

20 

14,700 

99 

99 

96 

California 

18 

1 24 

21 

10,300 

98 

99 

98 

19 

21 

25 

11 

17 

27 

57, 700 

98 

96 

95 

United  States 

20.6 

i22.6 

>19.4 

522, 800 

96.4 

96.7 

96.0 

19.8 

20.5 

20.5 

1V9 

14.1 

16.  5 

1,737,400 

!96.5 

j96.0 

94.0 

a Losses  per  1,000  head. 


16 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  590. 


Table  G. — Condition  of  sheep  Apr.  1 and  estimated  losses  of  sheep  and  lambs  during 
year  ending  Mar.  31,  1914,  uith  comparisons. 


Stale. 

Sheep. 

Lambs. 

Losses  from  dis- 
ease. 

I.osses  from  ex- 
posure. 

Losses 
from  dis- 
ease and 
exposure. 

Condition  Apr.  1. 

Losses  from  dis- 
ease and  expo- 
sure. 

1914 

1913 

10- 

year 

aver- 

age. 

1914 

1913 

10- 

year 

aver- 

age. 

1914 

1913 

10- 

year 

aver- 

age. 

1914 

1913 

1912 

(a) 

(a) 

(«) 

(a) 

(«,) 

(a) 

Number. 

P.o. 

r.  c. 

P.  c. 

(a) 

(«) 

(°) 

Maine 

25 

25 

26 

8 

6 

6 

5,800 

98 

96 

98 

44 

47 

44 

New  Kampsbire. . 

20 

19 

24 

6 

6 

11 

1,000 

99 

98 

98 

36 

36 

40 

Vermont 

20 

20 

22 

3 

4 

7 

2, 600 

99 

98 

98 

38 

30 

50 

Massachusetts 

17 

24 

19 

2 

4 

5 

600 

99 

95 

97 

25 

40 

35 

Rhode  Island 

25 

23 

16 

2 

2 

2 

200 

99 

97 

98 

29 

28 

33 

Connecticut 

10 

20 

23 

5 

7 

3 

300 

98 

98 

98 

30 

38 

35 

New  York 

24 

24 

24 

8 

7 

7 

28,000 

97 

97 

97 

45 

38 

53 

New  Jersey 

15 

21 

23 

4 

5 

7 

600 

96 

97 

95 

27 

28 

35 

Pennsylvania 

30 

27 

26 

12 

10 

13 

35,  2(X) 

95 

97 

95 

50 

41 

53 

Delaware 

30 

30 

26 

10 

12 

13 

300 

97 

95 

94 

39 

32 

40 

Maryland 

21 

26 

26 

10 

11 

17 

6,900 

95 

96 

94 

44 

44 

50 

Ahrginia 

35 

37 

35 

20 

17 

21 

40, 400 

93 

94 

92 

60 

62 

72 

AVest  Virginia 

35 

37 

32 

21 

15 

19 

44, 100 

91 

93 

92 

65 

55 

65 

North  Carolina 

24 

26 

24 

19 

18 

21 

7,600 

94 

95 

91 

46 

45 

40 

South  Carolina . . . 

21 

23 

26 

15 

18 

26 

1,200 

92 

94 

91 

38 

38 

40 

C.  eorgia 

25 

38 

34 

20 

28 

35 

7,500 

93 

91 

91 

40 

55 

72 

Florida 

25 

40 

35 

15 

30 

37 

4,700 

97 

95 

92 

50 

80 

86 

Ohio 

29 

30 

28 

11 

15 

14 

130, 500 

95 

95 

94 

50 

63 

65 

Indiana 

32 

34 

32 

12 

16 

15 

54, 500 

94 

94 

94 

60 

65 

83 

Illinois 

28 

28 

26 

12 

12 

10 

39, 400 

95 

96 

96 

47 

60 

80 

Michigan 

26 

28 

29 

8 

13 

12 

72,000 

96 

95 

95 

40 

61 

68 

AVisconsin 

16 

22 

22 

5 

9 

9 

16,  600 

97 

96 

96 

35 

45 

50 

Minnesota 

20 

20 

21 

8 

7 

12 

16, 000 

97 

97 

96 

34 

33 

40 

Iowa 

25 

25 

24 

8 

9 

11 

41,200 

97 

97 

97 

47 

51 

60 

Missouri 

24 

26 

28 

12 

15 

17 

56, 400 

93 

93 

93 

47 

59 

94 

North  Dakota 

19 

20 

20 

15 

20 

35 

9,400 

98 

98 

95 

37 

45 

28 

South  Dakota 

17 

20 

22 

10 

19 

24 

16, 700 

98 

97 

96 

30 

40 

47 

Nebraska 

16 

16 

22 

20 

41 

27 

13, 500 

96 

96 

96 

35 

45 

68 

Kansas 

15 

19 

16 

9 

35 

16 

7, 600 

94 

95 

95 

30 

50 

50 

Kentucky 

33 

39 

36 

19 

19 

25 

65, 900 

93 

93 

91 

75 

65 

100 

Tennessee 

28 

34 

32 

20 

25 

25 

33, 000 

94 

93 

91 

55 

62 

75 

Alabama 

35 

35 

34 

44 

29 

31 

9,800 

93 

93 

92 

55 

48 

65 

Mississippi 

37 

41 

41 

35 

44 

47 

14, 500 

95 

90 

88 

60 

75 

78 

Louisiana 

25 

35 

33 

30 

40 

38 

9,900 

93 

92 

92 

60 

50 

75 

Texas 

20 

21 

25 

16 

21 

28 

73, 900 

96 

94 

94 

43 

37 

68 

Oklahoma 

12 

14 

23 

8 

0 

20 

1,500 

97 

95 

92 

22 

25 

55 

Arkansas 

22 

23 

26 

15 

22 

25 

4,600 

92 

94 

91 

36 

50 

44 

Montana 

16 

20 

23 

15 

35 

49 

133, 100 

99 

96 

94 

40 

65 

70 

Wyoming 

15 

16 

25 

32 

37 

61 

210,  200 

100 

99 

96 

39 

30 

175 

Colorado 

21 

27 

24 

50 

32 

45 

118, 400 

97 

97 

95 

55 

60 

218 

New  Mexico 

25 

30 

24 

55 

50 

45 

242,900 

92 

95 

93 

74 

72 

60 

Arizona 

25 

15 

27 

35 

21 

40 

96, 100 

97 

98 

92 

55 

35 

150 

Utah 

18 

23 

20 

30 

33 

38 

41,400 

98 

97 

97 

51 

60 

45 

Nevada 

23 

20 

30 

50 

42 

41 

110,  700 

98 

95 

97 

65 

80 

60 

Idaho 

18 

22 

21 

20 

25 

35 

113,300 

98 

98 

96 

63 

65 

65 

AVashington 

15 

21 

19 

10 

20 

26 

12, 600 

100 

97 

97 

25 

49 

50 

Oregon 

13 

25 

19 

16 

20 

27 

77,400 

99 

96 

96 

35 

60 

45 

California 

17 

23 

26 

20 

22 

39 

94, 400 

98 

98 

96 

55 

67 

65 

United  Slates. 

21.7 

24.6 

25.2 

21.0 

25.1 

32.8 

j2, 124, 400 

96.6 

96.0 

94.8 

49.0 

56.5 

81.0 

a Losses  per  1,000  head. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK 


17 


Table  7. — Condition  of  swine  and  number  of  breeding  sows  Apr.  1,  and  estimated  losses 
of  swine  during  year  ending  Mar.  31,  with  comparisons. 


Swine. 


State. 


Losses  from  disease. 


1914 

1913 

1912 

1911 

10- 

year 

aver- 

age. 

30- 

year 

aver- 

age. 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

10- 

year 

aver- 

age. 

sows.® 

C) 

A) 

(&) 

C) 

(&) 

C) 

Number. 

Number. 

P.  c. 

P.  c. 

P.  c. 

P.  c. 

Maine 

60 

15 

20 

15 

19 

5,800 

2, 800 

97 

97 

98 

98 

New  Hampshire. . 

35 

25 

20 

20 

18 

22 

1,800 

1,300 

93 

95 

98 

98 

Vermont 

30 

19 

39 

19 

19 

23 

3,200 

2,000 

97 

99 

99 

100 

Massachusetts 

45 

40 

35 

21 

24 

23 

4,800 

4,600 

97 

95 

97 

105 

Rhode  Island . 

25 

25 

18 

22 

21 

22 

400 

400 

96 

97 

98 

102 

Connecticut 

35 

30 

48 

28 

26 

27 

2,000 

1,800 

96 

97 

99 

103 

New  York 

32 

30 

29 

25 

23 

26 

24,100 

22,800 

96 

98 

98 

105 

N e’W  J ersey 

50 

40 

40 

30 

29 

33 

7,900 

6,400 

96 

97 

97 

104 

Pennsylvania 

42 

43 

37 

36 

30 

33 

47,500 

48,600 

95 

96 

96 

103 

Delaware 

60 

50 

80 

33 

46 

51 

3,500 

2,900 

90 

92 

96 

102 

Maryland 

78 

90 

75 

32 

43 

54 

25,900 

30,200 

93 

94 

94 

107 

Vuginia 

46 

48 

40 

35 

43 

66 

40,000 

40, 100 

94 

95 

94 

102 

West  Vii'gmia 

47 

73 

41 

25 

36 

49 

17,200 

26,000 

96 

94 

95 

105 

North  Carolma 

50 

58 

44 

40 

60 

79 

68,100 

77,400 

93 

94 

94 

102 

South  Carolina 

65 

75 

60 

47 

61 

78 

50,  700 

57,400 

91 

90 

93 

100 

Georgia 

. 90 

165 

90 

57 

71 

94 

175,000 

311,500 

95 

92 

94 

105 

Florida 

150 

170 

100 

75 

85 

109 

135,600 

149, 300 

93 

92 

92 

103 

Ohio 

85 

86 

70 

51 

49 

54 

294, 700 

292,300 

91 

94 

94 

105 

Indiana 

135 

150 

125 

62 

75 

82 

535,800 

556,400 

91 

89 

93 

109 

Illinois 

140 

140 

215 

60 

77 

91 

610, 100 

604, 100 

92 

91 

95 

106 

Michigan 

62 

40 

40 

35 

32 

34 

81,400 

52,500 

93 

94 

96 

104 

Wisconsin 

50 

28 

28 

23 

24 

38 

102,500» 

56,800 

97 

96 

97 

103 

Minnesota 

214 

55 

30 

29 

32 

46 

306,000 

93, 600 

88 

96 

97 

84 

Iowa 

255 

160 

80 

43 

65 

91 

1,778,900 

1,395,200 

89 

89 

96 

93 

Missouri 

90 

175 

160 

48 

84 

93 

382,500 

715,200 

89 

84 

91 

104 

North  Dakota 

75 

20 

15 

17 

17 

31 

32, 100 

7,300 

94 

98 

98 

120 

South  Dakota 

230 

38 

38 

42 

51 

65 

239,000 

44,900 

90 

95 

96 

86 

Nebraska 

175 

no 

60 

36 

66 

88 

564,900 

417,800 

89 

93 

96 

90 

Kansas 

58 

120 

132 

40 

58 

68 

136,300 

313,300 

91 

91 

94 

92 

Kentucky 

90 

95 

70 

50 

63 

79 

135,600 

155, 600 

90 

90 

92 

100 

Tennessee 

no 

99 

70 

47 

62 

89 

152,900 

148,000 

89 

89 

93 

99 

Alabama 

100 

no 

65 

41 

64 

92 

148,500 

160, 200 

92 

92 

94 

103 

Mississippi 

104 

154 

75 

52 

74 

92 

152, 600 

228, 200 

95 

91 

93 

no 

Louisiana 

125 

no 

100 

68 

90 

no 

174,800 

155,300 

88 

88 

91 

99 

Texas 

75 

45 

34 

30 

38 

66 

196,400 

112, 200 

94 

94 

95 

105 

Oklahoma 

70 

81 

145 

32 

65 

57 

94,600 

107,300 

91 

88 

91 

102 

Arkansas 

125 

160 

140 

68 

101 

119 

187,  200 

244,600 

89 

87 

89 

105 

Montana 

30 

20 

19 

15 

20 

28 

5,500 

3, 100 

97 

97 

98 

135 

Wyoming 

20 

15 

12 

10 

18 

19 

1,000 

600 

101 

100 

99 

120 

Colorado 

25 

100 

20 

15 

29 

29 

5,100 

20,500 

98 

94 

98 

109 

New  Mexico 

21 

27 

16 

25 

20 

31 

1,200 

1,400 

97 

97 

95 

no 

Arizona 

55 

13 

12 

19 

27 

30 

1,300 

300 

96 

98 

96 

no 

Utah 

32 

24 

16 

17 

21 

26 

2,  700 

2,000 

97 

99 

98 

no 

Nevada 

35 

21 

24 

22 

22 

29 

1,200 

700 

99 

98 

98 

105 

Idaho 

50 

37 

14 

19 

18 

28 

12, 600 

8,600 

95 

96 

98 

120 

W ashington 

20 

22 

22 

17 

18 

26 

5,700 

5,700 

99 

98 

98 

113 

Oregon 

California 

20 

30 

16 

18 

17 

26 

6,000 

8,000 

100 

98 

98 

108 

53 

50 

25 

32 

36 

45 

42,200 

41,100 

97 

97 

97 

99 

United  States. 

118.9 

jllO.  1 

89.2 

44.8 

60.1 

76.4 

7,004,800 

|6, 738, 300 

91.6 

91.4 

1 94.4 

100.  8 

Condition  Apr.  1. 


Breed- 

ing 


a Number  compared  with  Apr.  1, 1913. 


& Losses  per  1,000  head. 


18 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  590. 

Table  8. — Prices  to  producers  of  agricultural  products  April  1,  1914  and  1913. 
[Cotton  in  cents  per  pound;  hay,  dollars  per  ton;  other  products,  cents  per  bushel.] 


State. 

Com. 

Wheat. 

Oats. 

Barley. 

Rye. 

Buck- 

wheat. 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

!i913 

1 

Cts. 

Cts. 

as. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

! Cts. 

Me 

84 

68 

100 

116 

58 

49 

80 

72 

65 

70 

N.  H 

76 

67 

120 

104 

53 

48 

95 

115 

75 

1 75 

Vt 

75 

67 

101 

100 

53 

46 

'*87 

85 

70 

89 

i 95 

Mass 

79 

69 

56 

46 

93 

97 

86 

i 72 

R,  I 

93 

89 

107 

80 

79 

69 

50 

41 

80 

91 

90 

100 

N.  Y 

77 

64 

97 

101 

48 

43 

70 

69 

72 

73 

81 

67 

N.  J 

77 

64 

97 

100 

47 

42 

75 

70 

75 

82 

Pa 

74 

61 

95 

101 

48 

42 

65 

68 

76 

74 

73 

66 

Del 

70 

55 

97 

99 

40 

40 

75 

76 

1 

Md 

74 

58 

95 

100 

50 

45 

65 

65 

74 

78 

80 

Va 

85 

73 

101 

106 

55 

54 

72 

75 

84 

82 

86 

“82 

W.  Va 

85 

71 

101 

104 

56 

51 

87 

84 

83 

73 

N.  C 

94 

83 

112 

118 

62 

62 

98 

103 

1 85 

90 

s.  c 

98 

89 

116 

124 

67 

64 

175 

150 

Ga 

94 

90 

122 

122 

65 

64 

134 

115 

150 

I 

Fla 

86 

92 

64 

68 

|.... 

Ohio 

64 

51 

93 

99 

39 

33 

57 

50 

68 

72 

80 

68 

Ind 

61 

48 

91 

97 

39 

32 

50 

65 

63 

67 

85 

Ill 

64 

47 

88 

90 

38 

31 

55 

54 

62 

71 

100 

"93 

Mich 

64 

51 

92 

99 

40 

32 

64 

63 

60 

57 

68 

64 

Wis 

59 

49 

82 

82 

37 

32 

52 

50 

55 

56 

72 

64 

Minn 

52 

41 

83 

76 

32 

26 

45 

43 

51 

49 

1 62 

62 

Iowa 

59 

41 

79 

79 

34 

29 

52 

51 

62 

60 

84 

81 

Mo 

74 

50 

86 

95 

46 

37 

60 

74 

78 

96 

98 

N.  Dak 

51 

47 

81 

72 

32 

23 

39 

34 

48 

47 

S.  Dak 

57 

39 

79 

73 

33 

26 

44 

41 

51 

57 

Nebr 

63 

44 

75 

74 

37 

31 

52 

40 

57 

56 

75 

Kans 

73 

48 

80 

78 

46 

40 

57 

42 

65 

67 

Ky 

81 

64 

98 

103 

54 

49 

72 

82 

84 

88 

Tenn 

82 

67 

101 

107 

56 

54 

82 

75 

102 

100 

73 

75 

Ala 

93 

79 

119 

106 

67 

58 

95 

150 

150 

Miss 

82 

75 

89 

62 

61 

La 

77 

79 

58 

55 

i 

Tex 

88 

69 

95 

93 

50 

44 

63 

68 

104 

no 

Okla 

74 

50 

81 

77 

48 

39 

68 

50 

93 

87 

Ark 

82 

72 

88 

94 

54 

55 

65 

95 

Mont 

81 

59 

71 

65 

33 

39 

52 

48 

61 

68 

Wy  0 

88 

62 

86 

94 

46 

46 

70 

80 

64 

70 

1 

Colo 

71 

53 

78 

77 

46 

37 

60 

44 

56 

49 

N.Mex 

72 

81 

79 

72 

40 

39 

79 

48 

Ariz 

112 

95 

109 

101 

67 

80 

79 

77 

Utah 

73 

70 

73 

72 

41 

42 

50 

53 

55 

67 

Nev 

112 

90 

101 

50 

52 

77 

88 

Idaho 

76 

80 

68 

73 

34 

35 

48 

49 

90 

69 

Wash 

71 

89 

80 

80 

41 

41 

50 

50 

60 

57 

Or  eg 

70 

78 

86 

79 

40 

41 

62 

58 

85 

73 

Cal 

83 

77 

97 

95 

52 

51 

66 

64 

no 

86 

U.S... 

70.7 

53.7 

84.2 

79.1 

39.5 

33.1 

51.7 

48.5 

63.0 

62.9 

76.9 

68.3 

Pota- 

toes. 


125 


53 


53 


115 


91 


41 


45 


50.3 


j Flaxseed. 

1914 

1913 

1 Cts. 

Cts. 

\ 

I”;:: 

i 

140 

136 
120 
145 

137 
132 

130 

113 

no 

112 

106 

114 

133 

130 

123 

129 

132.8 

113.6 

Hay.  Cotton. 


1914  i 1913  1914  1913 


Cts.  Cts. 


12,6 

12.6 


.2017.60 
.3047.30 
.20il0.  30 
.7040.80 
. 90  12. 00 


12.8 

15.6 


12.0010.70 


14.20 

5. 

7.00 
8. 50 
12.10 

17. 20 


11.50 
15.20 
8. 00 


11.6  9.5 


12.0 

12.6 

12.2 

11.7 

11.0 


8. 30. 

11. 30  . 

15.00  . 
9.001. 

11.00  . 

7. 50. 
1 10. 50  . 
8.  30  . 
14.00  . 


12.  20  11. 15  11. 


12.2 


12.0 

12.0 


11.9 

12,4 


11.9 

11.9 

11.9 

11.9 

11.8 


THE  AGKICULTUEAL  OUTLOOK, 


19 


Table  9. — Prices  to  producers  of  agricultural  products  on  dates  indicated,  by  States. 


[Butter,  chickens,  and  wool  in  cents  per  pound;  eggs,  cents  per  dozen;  live  stock,  dollars  per  100  pounds.] 


State. 


Maine 

New  Hampshire . 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jei-sey 

Pennsj'lvania 

Delaware 

Marjdand. 

Virgmia 

W est  V ii-ginia — 
North  Carolina. . . 
South  Carolina, . . 

Georgia 

Florida 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

North  Dakota 

South  Dakota 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Oklahoma 

Ai’kansas 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

New  Mexico 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washington 

Oregon 

California 


Apr.  1. 

]\Iar.  15. 

Butter. 

Eggs. 

Chickens. 

Hogs. 

Beef  cat- 
tle. 

Veal 

calves. 

Sheep. 

Wool. 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

31 

31 

22 

21 

14.5 

13.4 

».20 

$7.90 

$7. 50 

.$7. 50 

$8.  70 

$8.00 

$4.80 

$3.  90 

20 

23 

32 

33 

22 

22 

13.6 

15.0 

8.20 

7.  80 

7.00 

6. 10 

8.  80 

7.80 

6.60 

5.00 

17 

20 

31 

35 

22 

22 

1.3.2 

13.6 

8. 10 

7.90 

5.  70 

5. 10 

7. 60 

7. 10 

4. 10 

4. 30 

18 

21 

34 

36 

27 

27 

17.2 

15.7 

9.00 

9.00 

6.  20 

7.00 

9.  00 

8.80 

23 

33 

34 

26 

24 

18.0 

16.5 

9.60 

8. 70 

7.00 

7. 30 

9.50 

8.30 

’4.’ 50 

’5.' 50 

**'i7 

22 

34 

37 

26 

22 

16.6 

16.0 

9.80 

8.20 

8. 80 

6.50 

10.20 

8.50 

6.00 

6.  60 

22 

18 

29 

34 

22 

20 

15.8 

14.9 

8.40 

8.00 

6.20 

5.40 

9.  60 

9.00 

4.50 

4.60 

18 

22 

33 

37 

26 

21 

17.9 

17.0 

9.  80 

8.  70 

7.50 

7.00 

10.  30 

8.60 

4. 50 

20 

30 

33 

22 

18 

14.6 

14.0 

8.  70 

8.  00 

7. 40 

6.60 

9.60 

8. 40 

*5."  70 

5. 10 

20 

23 

32 

25 

18 

17 

14.5 

14.3 

8. 60 

8.50 

6.  20 

6.40 

10.  60 

9.  70 

5.10 

6.20 

21 

21 

29 

29 

18 

17 

16.2 

15.3 

8.10 

7. 80 

7.00 

6.30 

9. 70 

9.00 

5.00 

5.50 

26 

26 

18 

15 

14.5 

13.6 

8. 10 

7. 50 

6.40 

5.50 

8.30 

7.90 

4.40 

4.50 

*“26 

*“23 

28 

27 

21 

17 

13.4 

11.9 

8. 10 

7.90 

6. 90 

5.90 

8.60 

7. 90 

4.  70 

5.00 

20 

24 

25 

28 

17 

15 

11.7 

10.8 

7.  80 

7.10 

5.00 

4.  20 

6. 10 

5.00 

4. 30 

4.  60 

19 

20 

27 

26 

21 

19 

13.5 

11.9 

7.80 

7.30 

4. 40 

4. 30 

5.  20 

5. 10 

5. 10 

5.00 

16 

14 

25 

25 

20 

17 

13.2 

12.7 

7.80 

6. 70 

4.50 

3.80 

5. 30 

5.00 

4.50 

4.20 

20 

21 

33 

35 

22 

23 

15.2 

15.0 

7. 10 

6.20 

5.  20 

4.50 

6.  60 

6. 00 

7.20 

6.20 

18 

23 

26 

27 

17 

16 

13.1 

12.3 

8. 30 

8.  40 

7. 10 

6.  70 

9.  20 

8.80 

4. 60 

4.90 

19 

22 

23 

24 

16 

16 

12.0 

11.8 

8.30 

8.40 

6.  80 

6.50 

8. 10 

8.20 

4.30 

4.  60 

19 

22 

25 

27 

16 

16 

12.1 

11.4 

8. 10 

8. 10 

7.00 

6. 80 

8.30 

8.00 

4. 50 

5. 10 

17 

21 

26 

29 

19 

19 

13.0 

12.3 

8. 00 

8.00 

6.50 

6.00 

8.80 

8.20 

4.70 

5.00 

19 

20 

27 

31 

17 

17 

11.3 

11.8 

8.00 

8. 00 

5.70 

5.60 

8. 10 

8.  40 

4.  20 

5. 10 

18 

20 

25 

30 

16 

16 

10.8 

10.3 

7.  70 

7.  80 

5.80 

5.80 

7.  30 

7.30 

4. 30 

4.90 

15 

19 

24 

29 

16 

15 

10  9 

10.3 

8. 10 

8. 10 

7. 40 

7. 10 

8.20 

7.  60 

4. 50 

5.30 

17 

20 

23 

23 

16 

15 

11.8 

11.1 

7. 80 

7. 70 

6. 80 

6.50 

7.60 

7. 30 

4.  70 

5. 10 

18 

21 

20 

23 

16 

17 

10.2 

9.8 

7. 10 

7.20 

5.60 

5.20 

7. 30 

6. 80 

4. 80 

4. 80 

15 

16 

21 

24 

15 

15 

8.8 

8.9 

7.60 

7.60 

6. 60 

6. 30 

7.50 

6. 90 

4.  80 

4.90 

15 

17 

21 

23 

16 

15 

10.7 

9.7 

7.80 

7. 80 

7. 10 

6. 90 

8.  40 

7. 80 

5.  40 

5.90 

15 

19 

22 

24 

16 

14 

10.5 

9.5 

7. 90 

7. 80 

7. 10 

6.  70 

8.20 

7. 90 

5.60 

6. 10 

16 

22 

22 

16 

14 

1L7 

11.4 

7.80 

7.50 

6.20 

5.80 

7.60 

7. 10 

3.90 

3.60 

19 

23 

21 

20 

16 

14 

11.7 

11.1 

7. 50 

6. 90 

5.80 

4.90 

6.90 

5.50 

3. 80 

3.60 

18 

20 

21 

21 

16 

15 

12.2 

11.7 

7. 10 

6.80 

4.20 

3.50 

4.90 

4.20 

4. 30 

3.20 

15 

18 

24 

22 

17 

15 

12.5 

11.8 

6. 40 

6. 10 

4.20 

3.  60 

5.80 

4. 40 

4.00 

3.80 

16 

19 

29 

27 

20 

18 

13.5 

12.7 

6. 30 

5.80 

5. 10 

4.  30 

5.90 

4.  80 

3.60 

3. 00 

14 

13 

22 

23, 

15 

14 

9.9 

9.3 

7.30 

7. 20 

5.50 

4. 90 

6.30 

6.80 

4.70 

4.70 

14 

14 

21 

21 

15 

13 

10.1 

9.4 

7.50 

7.50 

6. 10 

5.60 

7.40 

6. 90 

5.40 

4. 90 

15 

19 

23 

23 

16 

15 

10.6 

10.0 

6.30 

6.00 

4.  80 

4.  20 

6.50 

5.20 

3.80 

3.80 

16 

17 

32 

34 

21 

25 

13.3 

13.7 

7.50 

7.40 

6.90 

6.80 

8.  80 

9. 10 

5.  50 

5. 10 

18 

19 

31 

35 

21 

27 

12.7 

13.5 

7. 9Q 

7. 30 

6.  80 

6.  10 

9.00 

8. 50 

5.20 

5.50 

15 

16 

28 

30 

21 

20 

12.6 

13.2 

7.60 

7.50 

6.70 

6.30 

8. 60 

8.30 

5. 10 

5.40 

17 

15 

36 

33 

25 

27 

13.2 

12.1 

7.50 

7. 30 

6. 30 

6.00 

8. 10 

8.00 

4. 50 

4.70 

13 

15 

35 

39 

23 

25 

15.8 

20. 0 

7.  70 

7.30 

6.50 

5.50 

7.80 

6.50 

3.  80 

4. 10 

17 

16 

29 

28 

17 

17 

13.0 

12.3 

7.20 

6.  70 

6. 10 

6. 10 

9. 60 

8.  30 

5.20 

5. 10 

15 

14 

38 

38 

30 

28 

22.8 

19.8 

9.40 

8. 60 

6. 60 

7. 50 

7.80 

8.10 

5.40 

5.40 

14 

28 

30 

17 

21 

11.0 

10.9 

7.50 

6. 90 

6. 30 

5.90 

8.50 

7.80 

4.  70 

5.30 

16 

17 

29 

34 

19 

18 

14.5 

13.9 

7.  70 

7.70 

6. 50 

6.  90 

8.20 

8.60 

5.20 

5.60 

15 

31 

33 

20 

17 

13.8 

12.5 

7.50 

7.50 

6.  70 

6.  60 

7.90 

8.00 

4.  30 

5.  10 

15 

18 

28 

34 

19 

18 

15.2 

13.5 

8.00 

6.90 

6.80 

6.  70 

7.60 

7.00 

4.  90 

5.  10 

12 

24.9 

27. 6 

^^1 

16.4 

12.3 

11.6 

1 

7.80 

7. 62 

6.28 

5.88 

7.92 

7.49 

.7t| 

4.  97 

16.4 

18.4 

United  States.. 


20 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  500. 


Table  10. — Averages  for  the  United  States  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of  farm  products. 


Mar.  15— 

Apr.  1.5 — 

Feb.  15 — 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

1913 

1912 

1914 

1913 

1912 

Lambs 

per  100  lbs.. 

$6. 31 

$6.  56 

$0.  38 

$5.  49 

$7. 37 

$6. 59 

$5. 98 

$6. 18 

$6.34 

$5. 15 

Milch  cows 

59.  23 

54.00 

44.00 

45.  42 

41.  75 

55. 34 

45. 14 

59.00 

51.42 

43. 40 

Horses 

do.... 

138.  00 

146.  00 

140. 00 

145. 00 

150. 00 

148. 00 

142.  00 

139.00 

146.00 

137.00 

Honey,  comb 

.per  pound.. 

.137 

.1.39 

.1,39 

.135 

.136 

.141 

.i;38 

,1.37 

.139 

.14 

Ajiples 

per  bushel.. 

1.29 

.824 

1.035 

1.247 

1. 14 

.85 

1. 149 

1.  23 

.784 

.988 

Peanuts 

per  pound.. 

.047 

.047 

.05 

.048 

.05 

.048 

.049 

.047 

.045 

.047 

Beans,  dry 

.per  bushel.. 

2.05 

2. 10 

2. 42 

2.17 

2.17 

2.11 

2.37 

2.09 

2. 19 

2.38 

Soy  beans 

do 

1.  80 

Sweet  potatoes. . . 

do 

.873 

.908 

1.024 

.873 

.80 

.943 

1.174 

.861 

.87 

.93/ 

Cabbages per  100  pounds. . 

2.03 

1.03 

2.88 

1.26 

2. 14 

1. 15 

3.17 

2.07 

1.17 

2.24 

Onions 

.per  bushel.. 

1.55 

.77 

1.67 

1.05 

.925 

.79 

1.75 

1.41 

.775 

1.40 

Clover  seed 

do 

8.61 

10.  42 

12. 89 

8.56 

8.15 

11.00 

12.91 

8.  79 

10.28 

12.22 

Timothy  seed 

do 

2.51 

1.72 

7.33 

4.93 

1.74 

7. 27 

2.  45 

1.78 

7.26 

Alfalfa  seed 

do 

6.81 

8.19 

8. 36 

6.  84 

8. 15 

Broom  corn 

per  ton. . 

91.00 

57.00 

'99.’ 66' 

'78.' 66' 

266.' 66' 

58.00 

101.00 

9.5.00 

56.00 

86.00 

Cotton  seed 

do 

23.60 

21.  .55 

18.21 

25.49 

21. 89 

18. 62 

2.3. 37 

22.00 

16.81 

Maple  sugar 

per  pound . . 

. 124 

.126 

.111 

. 13 

. 125 

. 122 

Maple  sirup 

. .per  gallon. 

1.099 

1.065 

1. 051 



1. 098 

1.082 



1.059 

Hops 

.205 

.401 

"'.'i92 

.m 

.150 

.191 

.169 

“'.’38' 

Paid  by  farmers; 

Bran 

per  ton.. 

27.  .58 

24.96 

29. 15 

24.94 

27.00 

24.69 

29.  73 

26.  91 

25.32 

28.62 

Clover  seed . . 

.per  bushel.. 

9.  75 

12.  30 



12.90 

9.  59 

11. 52 

'^J'imothy  seed 

do.... 

2.  95 

2.  33 

2.  43 

2.  92 

2.47 

Alfalfa  seed. . 

do 

8. 15 

9.  78 

1 

9.99 

8. 19 

9. 60 

1 

Table  11. — Range  of  prices  of  agricultural  products  at  market  centers. 


Products  and  markets. 

Apr.  1,  1914. 

Mar.,  1914. 

Feb.,  1914. 

Mar.,  1913. 

Wheat,  per  bushel: 

No.  2 red  winter,  St.  liOuis 

$0. 93  -$0. 93 

$0. 92  -SO.  96  J 

$0.91  -80.951 

•SO.  97?,-$l.  1 

No.  2 red  whiter,  Chicago 

.921-  .93| 

.921-  .96-1 

.931-  .971 

1.01  - 

1.08 

No.  2 red  winter.  New  York^ 

Corn,  per  bushel: 

1.  05  - 1. 05 

1.  05  - 1. 06 

1.01  - 1.051 

1.  091- 

1.12 

No.  2 mixed,  St.  Louis 

. 69  - . 69 

. 65  - .72 

. 64  - . 681 

.49  - 

.5 

No.  2,  Chicago 

. 661-  • 67 

. 63  - .70 

. 61  - . 631 

. 50  - 

.5 

No.  2 mixed.  New  York^ 

.691-  *70 

.68g-  .72-1 

. 68  - . 70i 

.551- 

.5' 

Oats,  per  bushel: 

No.  2,  St.  Louis 

. 40  - . 40 

.381-  .43 
.37i-  .391 

.391-  .43 

.32  - 

.3 

No.  2,  Chicago 

Rye,  per  bushel:  No.  2,  Chicago 

Baled  hay,  per  ton:  No.  1 timothy#Chicago 

.38-1-  .38-1- 

.38|-  .39^- 
.601-  .64 

.31f- 

.3 

. 62  - .62 

.591-  .63 

.58  - 

.6 

15. 00  -16. 00 

14.  50  -16. 00 

15.  OO'-ie.  00 

13.  00  -16. 5c 

Hops,  per  pound:  Choice,  New  York 

. 42  - .44 

. 42  - .45 

. 43  - .46 

.21  - 

.27 

Wool,  xier  pound: 

Ohio,  fine,  unwashed,  Boston 

. 22  - .22 

. 22  - .22 

. 21-  . 22 

.23  - 

.24 

Best,  tub  washed,  St.  Louis 

. 29  - .29 

. 28  - .29 

. 28  - .28 

.33  - 

.35 

Live  hogs,  per  100  pounds:  Bulk  of  sales,  Chicago. 

8. 53  - 8. 65 

8.20  - 9.00 

8.  20  - 8. 90 

8.  75  - 

9.50 

Butter,  per  pound: 

.42 

Creamery,  extra.  New  York 

.241-  .25 

.24^  .32 

.26^-  .32 

.351- 

Creamery,  extra,  Elgin 

. 25  - . 25 

.25-  .30 

,261-  .30 

.34  - 

.35 

Eggs,  per  dozen: 

.31 

Average  best,  fresh.  New  York 

.211-  .26 

. 21  - .36 

. 29  - .40 

.20  - 

Average  best,  fresh,  St.  Louis 

.17?.-  .171- 

.171-  -27 

.241-  .28 

.16  - 

.19 

Cheese,  per  pound:  Colored, 2 New  York 

. 16  - . 161 

.16?,-  .171 

.16i-  .171 

.16  - 

.17i 

1 F.  o.  1).  afloat. 

September  colored,  September  to  April,  inclusive;  new  colored.  May  to  July,  inclusive;  colored,  August. 


O 


WASHINGTO.X  ; GOVERN -UEXT  TRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


U.S.DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  ol  Plant  Industry,  V/m.  A.  Taylor,  Chief. 
July  10,  1914. 


THE  CLASSIFICATION  AND  GRADING  OF  COTTON. 


By  D.  E.  Earle,  Cotton  Technologist,  and  W.  S.  Dean,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Tech- 
nology, Office  of  Agricultural  Technology  and  Cotton  Standardization. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  present  method  of  grading  cotton  dates  back  to  about  1800. 
•le  grade  names  were  first  used  in  Liverpool,  England.  Persons 
I the  trade — that  is,  the  cotton  merchant,  broker  (or  factor),  and  the 
o/inner — were  about  the  only  ones  who  classified  or  graded  cotton. 
*1  he  producer  rarely  knew  the  grade  of  his  cotton  or  for  what  use  it 
^ as  best  suited. 

Until  recently,  very  few  growers  have  had  the  opportunity  of 
quiring  such  knowledge.  Within  the  last  four  years  almost  all  of 
3 agricultural  schools  of  the  southern  United  States  have  added 
cotton  grading  to  their  regular  courses  of  study,  besides  giving  special 
iding  courses  in  the  winter.  Field  agents  of  the  Farmers’  Coopera- 
tive Demonstration  Work  in  every  cotton-growing  State  have  been 
"mplied  with  the  official  grades,  and  the  growers  have  been  able  to 
Le  use  of  these  to  a considerable  extent. 

Of  course,  no  one  can  learn  to  classify  all  the  grades  of  cotton  witliin 
/criod  of  six  to  eight  weeks,  and  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  grower  to 
•,ome  familiar  with  all  the  grades  of  cotton  that  are  grown.  Often 
5 enough  if  he  knows  only  the  three  grades,  Low  Middling,  Middling, 
.^d  Good  Middling,  since  this  range  of  grades  covers  the  bulk  of  the 
white  cotton  grown  in  an  average  season.  By  practicing  with  a full 
of  types  for  comparison,  a knowledge  of  the  trade  ^‘half  grades” 
ly  be  gained,  that  is,  the  grades  between  Good  Middling  and  Mid- 
mg  and  between  Middling  and  Low  Middling.  Such  knowledge, 
apled  with  a knowledge  of  the  corresponding  market  prices,  would 
very  useful  to  the  grower  and  in  the  end  should  encourage  him  to 
)duce  a better  quality  of  cotton  and  to  handle  it  with  more  care. 
The  objects  of  grading  and  classifying  cotton  are  to  aid  (1)  in  deter- 
jiing  the  comparative  values  of  the  different  qualities  and  (2)  in 
-scribing  the  cotton  so  as  to  make  buying  and  selling  easier  when 

Note. — Names,  classifies,  and  describes  the  difierent  grades  of  cotton. 

41696°— Bull.  591—14 1 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  591. 


there  are  no  samples.  With  the  present  methods  of  buying  cotton, 
especially  the  short-staple  varieties  (tliree-fourths  of  an  inch  to  1^ 
inches),  other  things  being  equal,  the  grade  practically  determines 
the  price  that  is  received  by  the  producer.  Wliat  is  known  as  staple 
cotton  (1  J-inch  staple  or  above)  is  usually  sold  on  sample.  The  sam- 
ple gives  each  party  to  the  trade  a chance  to  form  his  own  opinion, 
and  is  necessary  because  cotton  dealers  and  spinners  have  such  dif- 
ferent ideas  about  the  character  and  length  of  staple. 

GRADE  NAMES.' 


The  grade  names  that  are  in  more  or  less  general  use  tliroughout 
the  United  States  for  what  is  Imown  as  American  cotton  are  as  fol- 
lows: 


ABOVE  MIDDLING, 


BELOW  MIDDLING. 


1.  Fair. 

2.  Strict  Middling  Fair. 

3.  Middling  Fair. 

4.  Strict  Good  Middling. 

5.  Good  Middling. 

6.  Strict  Middling. 


7.  Middling. 


8.  Strict  Low  Middling. 

9.  Low  Middling. 

10.  Strict  Good  Ordinary. 

11.  Good  Ordinary. 

12.  Strict  Ordinary. 

13.  Ordinary. 


The  official  grades  as  prepared  at  present  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  include  only  nine  of  these,  namely,  Mid- 
dhng  Fair  to  Good  Ordinary,  inclusive.  In  an  average  season  this 
range  of  grades  covers  practically  all  the  white  cotton  grown. 

The  grade  names  containing  the  word  strict”  are  known  in  the 
trade  as  half  grades,  the  others  as  full  grades.^  If  the  order  of  these 
names  is  kept  in  mind  it  will  help  in  understanding  the  descriptions 
that  foUow.  Middling,  as  the  name  shows,  is  the  middle  or  basic 
grade,  and  is  the  grade  upon  which  the  market  quotations  are  based. 
All  grades  above  Middhng  bring  a higher  price  and  aU  below  Middling 
bring  a lower  price  than  that  quoted  for  Middling,  the  amount  above 
or  below  varying  according  to  the  respective  differences  in  use  where 
the  cotton  is  marketed. 

Many  more  grade  names  are  used  by  the  trade  in  the  large  spot 
markets  to  describe  the  different  classes  of  colored  cottons.  The 
grades  of  white  cotton,  however,  are  the  foundation  of  all  these  other 
classes.  WTien  the  cotton  is  not  white,  its  nature  is  indicated  by 
adding  the  words  ‘^off  color”  or  ^4air  color,”  ^^spotted,”  ^Hinged,” 
or  ‘^stained,”  as  the  case  may  be,  to  the  grade  given  to  the  sample. 
In  other  words,  there  may  be  several  classes  of  the  same  grade  of 
cotton;  e.  g..  Middling  '^off  color,”  Middling  ‘Hinged,”  or  Middling 
“stained.” 


1 The  grading  of  Sea  Island  and  Egyptian  cotton  will  not  be  considered  in  this  bulletin,  since  thecharao 
teristics  of  these  varieties  are  such  that  different  methods  of  grading  as  well  as  different  grade  names  are  used, 

2 The  words  "Fully”  and  "Barely”  put  before  the  full  grade  are  sometimes  used  on  the  exchanges  when 
speaking  of  quarter  grades.  "Fully”  means  the  quarter  grade  above,  while  "Barely”  means  the  quarter 
grade  below. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  GRADING  OF  COTTON.  § 

FACTORS  THAT  INFLUENCE  THE  GRADE.  -3-  c l 

The  principal  points  to  be  considered  in  deciding  the  grade  of  a cot- 
ton are  (1)  foreign  matter  or  impurities  (such  as  leaf,  dirt,  sand,  and 
also  strings,  motes,  neps,  gin-cut  fiber,  cut  seed,  and  unripe  fiber)  and 
(2)  color.  With  cotton  that  can  be  classed  as  white,  the  amount  of 
foreign  matter  or  impurities  is  of  greater  importance  than  color  in 
determining  the  grade.  It  will  be  seen  that  grade  and  value  do  not 
run  parallel  except  for  cottons  that  have  the  same  qualities  of  staple. 
The  cotton  merchant,  in  filling  the  spinners^  orders,  must  rate  the 
strength,  length,  pliability,  cling,  and  evenness  of  the  staple  as  well 
as  the  grade.  The  relative  spinning  values  will  be  considered  apart 
from  the  grade. 


Fig.  1.— Sectional  view  of  huller  gin.  Fig.  2.— Sectional  view  of  plain  gin. 


FOREIGN  IMPURITIES. 

Leaf,  dirt,  and  sand. — The  amount  of  leaf,  dirt,  and  sand  in  the 
sample  depends  upon  the  weather.  Usually  there  is  very  little  leaf 
when  the  cotton  is  picked  before  the  vegetation  is  killed  by  frost.  The 
dirt  and  sand  may  be  caused  by  either  wind  or  rain.  Many  of  these 
impurities  may  be  taken  out  at  the  gins  by  the  use  of  cleaners.  Fifty 
pounds  or  more  can  very  often  be  extracted  from  one  bale  of  low-grade 
cotton.  If  up-to-date  machinery  could  be  used  for  the  whole  crop 
there  would  be  but  few  bales  grading  below  Low  Middhng.  If,  then, 
the  cotton  was  sold  on  grade,  the  increase  in  price  would  offset  the 
loss  in  weight  and  at  the  same  time  the  cost  for  ginning  would  be 
reduced-  Much  of  the  leaf,  dirt,  sand,  and  hulls  may  be  removed  by 
the  use  of  “huller’’  gins.  (See  fig.  1.^)  All  types  of  gins  (see  fig.  2), 


• All  illustrations  were  prepared  with  the  assistance  of  Mr.  W.  E.  Chambers,  of  the  Oflice  of  Agricultural 
Technology  and  Cotton  Standardization, 


4 


farmers'  bulletin  591. 


Fig.  3 —Motes,  (Enlarged  5 times.) 


however,  turn  out  cleaner  and  better  samples  if  the  cotton  is  thoroughly 
dry  when  ginned. 

Motes. — Motes  (fig.  3^)  are  immature  seeds  or  ends  of  seeds  that  are 
pulled  off  in  the  ginning.  Immature  seeds  are  found  more  or  less  in 

all  cotton,  the  number  depending 
upon  the  variety  and  the  weather 
conditions  during  its  growth  and 
maturity.  They  go  out  as  waste  in 
the  manufacturing  processes  and 
their  presence  lowers  the  grade. 

Ncfs  and  cut  fibers. — Neps  and 
cut  fibers  (figs.  4 and  5)  may  be 
caused  by  feeding  the  gin  too  fast, 
by  the  gin  being  in  bad  order,  by 
the  presence  of  unripe  fiber,  or 
by  dampness  in  the  cotton  when 
ginned.  Neps  look  like  small  white 
dots.  They  may  best  be  seen 
when  a thin  layer  of  the  cotton 
fibers  is  held  toward  the  light.  The 
cut  fibers  show  in  bunches  and 
V-shaped  kinks  and  give  the  sample 
a rough  appearance.  It  is  difficult  to  judge  the  grade  or  value  of 
gin-cut  cotton;  in  order  to  be  on  the  safe  side,  the  buyer  often 
penalizes  such  cotton  from  1 to  3 cents  per  pound. 

Stringy  cotton. — Stringy  cotton  (fig.  6)  is  defective  cotton,  pro- 
duced by  ginning  wet  or  un- 
ripe seed  cotton,  or  some  times 
by  a wrong  adjustment  of  the 
brushes  that  take  the  lint 
awayfrom  the  gin  saws.  (See 
fig.  1.)  The  fibers  in  these 
strings  do  not  separate  very 
easily,  while  many  of  them 
are  knocked  out  in  the  clean- 
ing processes  at  the  null,  and 
go  into  the  waste. 

Cut  seeds. — Cut  seeds  (fig. 

7)  are  caused  by  fast  ginning 

with  ahard  roll  and  by  broken  F.G.4,_Neps.  (Enia^^ed  5 times.) 

or  bent  gin-saw  teeth  that 

strike  the  grate  bars.  Cut  seeds  have  their  effect  upon  the  eye  and 
touch  in  grading  and  should  be  avoided  by  the  ginner. 


1 The  microphotographs,  figures  3 to  8,  inclusive,  were  made  by  Dr.  Albert  Mann^  Office  of  Agricultural 
Technology  and  Cpttpn  Standardisation, 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  GKADING  OP  COTTON. 


5 


Unripe  fibers. — Unripe  fibers  (fig.  8)  have  a glossy  appearance 
and  are  usually  matted  together.  Bolls  of  cotton  that  are  picked 
before  they  are  well  opened,  and  also  the  top  bolls  that  are  forced 
open  by  the  action  of  frost,  usu- 
ally contain  unripe  fibers.  These 
fibers  are  very  weak,  and  they  lower 
the  grade,  as  does  dirt  or  bad  fiber  of 
any  kind. 

Requirements  for  satisfactory  gin- 
ning.— Cotton  should  be  dry  when, 
ginned,  and  the  saws,  brushes,  and 
other  parts  of  the  gin  should  be  in 
good  condition  if  a smooth  sample  is 
to  be  obtained.  Cleaners  used  in 
connection  with  the  ginning  of  low- 
grade  cotton  will  improve  the  sample 
from  one  to  two  grades. 

COLOR. 


Fig.  5. — Cut  fibers.  (Enlarged  5 times.) 


The  weather  and  the  soil  are  the 
factors  that  influence  the  color  of 
cotton.  The  early  pickings  when  not  exposed  to  the  rain  usually  have  a 
bright,  creamy  color,  and  if  picked  with  ordinary  care  should  grade 
Good  Middling  or  better.  If  left  in  the  field  too  long,  however,  the 

luster  is  lost  and  the  color  of  the 
cotton  changed  to  a ^^dead’’  or 
bluish  white  that  may  reduce  the 
grade  to  Good  Middling  off  color, 
or  perhaps  Middling  or  below,  de- 
pending upon  the  quantity  of  trash 
and  dirt.  A rain  may  change  the 
same  cotton  to  Middling  tinged” 
or  Middling  stained,  ” according  to 
the  kind  of  soil  and  the  quantity  of 
rain.  Weather-tinged  and  weather- 
stained  cottons  are  often  of  a bluish 
color  and  when  not  grown  on  sandy 
land  generally  contain  mud  spots. 
The  action  of  frost  on  the  late  bolls 
before  they  open  also  causes  spots, 
tinges,  or  stains,  depending  upon 
the  amount  of  colored  cotton  that 
is  mixed  with  the  white.  This  ^Urost”  cotton  has  a yellowish  or  buff 
color  and  is  usually  weaker  than  other  tinged  cotton,  owing  to  the 
bolls  being  forced  open  before  the  fiber  is  fully  developed.^ 


Fig.  6.— Stringy  cotton.  (Enlarged  5 times.) 


1 Earle,  D.  E.  Cotton  Grading.  Bulletin  2,  vol.  4,  Clemson  Agricultural  College  extension  work. 


6 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  591. 


Cotton  picked  while  wet  with  dew  or  soon  after  rain  will  contahi 
an  excess  of  moisture.  This  may  cause  mildew  and  thus  give  the 
cotton  a bluish  cast.  A bale  of  cotton  left  exposed  to  the  weather 
in  the  gin  yard  very  often  has  a mildewed  outer  surface,  or  plate, 

and  a sample  drawn  from  near 
the  surface  of  such  a hale  may 
not  afford  a fair  representa- 
tion of  its  color. 

The  United  States  official 
cotton  grades,  as  well  as  other 
grade  standards,  require  that 
cotton  grading  Strict  Good 
Middling  or  above  be  of  a 
bright  creamy  or  white  color 
and  free  from  any  discolora- 
tion. A definite  or  fixed  color 
is  not  so  absolutely  required 
in  the  grades  below  Strict 
Good  Middling.  For  exam- 
ple, a Middling  may  be  creamy  or  dead  white,  and  the  same  sample 
might  grade  below  or  above  Middling,  according  as  it  contained  more 
or  less  impurities.  In  the  grades  below  Strict  Low  Middling,  how- 
ever, the  creamy  color  or  bloom  is  lost,  since  climatic  and  soil 
conditions  that  lower  the  grade  to 
this  extent  also  affect  the  color, 
giving  either  a dead  white,  a gray,  or 
a dingy  or  reddish  cast  to  the  lower 
grades,  although  they  pass  commer- 
cially as  white  cotton. 

The  above  variations  in  color  can 
best  be  seen  when  the  cotton  is 
placed  in  north  light.  (See  fig.'  14.) 

If  out  of  doors,  the  examiner’s 
back  should  be  turned  toward  the 
sun,  so  that  his  line  of  vision  wiU 
be  more  or  less  parallel  to  the  rays 
of  light.  The  best  light  for  grading 
may  be  had  on  a clear  day  between 
the  hours  from  9 a.  m.  to  3 p.  m. 

It  is  sometimes  hard  to  judge  the 
color  of  cotton  on  a day  that  is 
cloudy  or  partly  cloudy,  because  of  reflected  light.  This  difficulty 
is  frequently  experienced  along  a coast  where  there  are  numerous 
clouds.  The  reflection  may  be  more  troublesome  when  grading  near 
large  bodies  of  water. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  ORADING  OF  COTTON. 


1 


SAMPLE  FOR  GRADING. 

In  sampling  a bale  of  cotton  for  grading,  about  3 ounces  should  be 
drawn  from  each  side  of  the  bale.  When  the  samples  are  drawn 
from  a bale  of  compressed  cotton  they  should  be  allowed  to  lie  for  a 
day  before  grading,  so  that  the  matted  condition  and  deadened 
color  may  disappear.  Classers  are  more  liberal  in  grading  com- 
pressed cotton,  because  the  leaf  and  dirt  are  more  condensed  and  the 
general  appearance  of  the  sample  is  rougher.-  Samples  from  bales 
should  be  drawn  in  smooth  sheets,  and  preferably  when  the  bale  is 
dry.  In  grading,  the  sample  should  be  unfolded  three  or  four  times 
and  examined  in  its  different  parts,  since  the  leaf  and  dirt  are  not 
always  evenly  distributed.  This  unevenness  is  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  cotton  in  any  such  sample  came  from  several  parts  of 
the  field  and  was  perhaps  picked  by  a number  of  persons.  The  dif- 
ferent pickings  made  from  time  to  time  also  are  very  often  stored 
together,  and  this  may  cause  a considerable  variation,  especially 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  season.^ 

Many  bales  have  a thin  plate  on  one  side  that  is  of  a higher  or  lower 
grade  than  the  rest  of  the  bale.  This  is  usually  caused  by  a ^^roll” 
being  left  in  the  breast’’  of  the  gin  from  cotton  of  a different  lot 
previously  ginned.  The  sample  from  such  a bale  should  therefore  be 
drawn  from  a sufficient  depth  to  be  fairly  representative  of  the  bale. 

UNITED  STATES  OFFICIAL  COTTON  GRADES. 

NEED  OF  UNIFORM  GRADES. 

There  has  never  been,  in  the  history  of  the  cotton  trade,  a uniform 
standard  for  grading  American  cotton.  This  has  caused  so  much 
trouble  and  confusion  that  the  question  has  been  discussed  at  almost 
every  meeting  of  cotton  growers  and  manufacturers  held  during 
recent  years.  Approximately  the  same  grade  names  are  used  in 
nearly  all  markets,  but  they  do  not  have  the  same  meaning.  This 
is  confusing  to  the  grower  and  makes  it  difficult  for  him  to  know  what 
value  his  crop  would  have  on  other  markets  than  his  own,  because 
while  the  same  grade  names  may  be  employed  they  are  used  with 
different  meanings.  ^Middling,  for  example,  has  sometimes  varied 
from  town  to  town.  Even  in  the  same  market  it  sometimes  has  had 
a changed  meaning  from  year  to  year,  to  fit  the  merchants’  ideas  of 
what  Middling  cotton  should  be  for  that  particular  year,  their  opin- 
ions depending  upon  whether  the  crop  was  of  a high  or  low  grade. 
It  is  most  desirable  to  have  a single  standard,  so  that  if  a bale  of 

1 During  the  season  of  1911,  Dr,  N.  A.  Cobb,  Agricultural  Technologist,  had  some  grading  investigations 
made  with  the  entire  crop  of  Louis  Fox,  Waco,  Tex.  The  crop  was  from  selected  “Triumph”  seed  and 
was  on  fairly  uniform  land.  The  respective  pickings  were  stored  and  ginned  separately,  and  the  range  of 
grades  produced  was  as  follows:  Strict  Middling,  Middling,  Strict  Low  Middling,  Low  Middling,  and 
Strict  Good  Ordinary,  the  diSerence  in  the  market  price  at  Waco  between  the  extremes  being  1|  cents  per 
pound  (January  18, 1911). 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  591. 


cotton  is  Middling  in  one  market  it  will  be  a Middling  bale  in  any 
market  in  the  United  States,  and,  if  possible,  in  any  market  in  the 
world. 

An  act  of  the  Sixtieth  Congress  authorized  the  establishment  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  of  nine  official  grades 
of  cotton  (with  Middling  as  a basis),  as  follows:  Middling  Fair,  Strict 
Good  Middling,  Good  Middling,  Strict  Middling,  ^Middling,  Strict 
Low  Middling,  Low  Mddling,  Strict  Good  Ordinary,  and  Good 
Ordinary.  In  February,  1909,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  called 
upon  cotton  growers,  dealers,  manufacturers,  and  experts  to  assist 
in  making  these  grades.^ 

Tliis  committee  was  provided  with  numerous  samples  of  cotton 
from  all  sections  of  the  cotton  belt  and  from  most  of  the  exchanges 
in  the  United  States.  Each  member  of  the  committee  was  requested 
to  bring  with  him  samples  of  cotton  from  his  locality  or  market,  and 
nearly  all  the  members  complied  with  this  request.  In  addition,  Liver- 
pool and  Bremen  sent  copies  of  their  standards  for  reference.  This 
cotton,  with  the  sole  exception  of  the  Liverpool  grades,  was  placed 
entirely  at  the  service  of  the  committee. 

The  original  set  of  official  grades  as  prepared  by  this  committee 
was  intended  to  represent  American  white  cotton  of  good  color  and 
fair  staple.  The  cotton  used  was  selected  without  regard  to  where  it 
was  grown.2  In  making  copies  of  these  grades  for  sale,  the  same 
policy  has  been  continued,  and  cotton  for  the  official  grade  boxes  has 
been  used  from  almost  every  cotton-growing  State.  There  are,  how- 
ever, certain  qualities  in  cotton  (to  be  mentioned  later)  that  usually 
indicate  the  section  in  which  the  cotton  was  grown.  Each  grade 
box  contains  12  samples,  so  as  to  indicate  the  slight  range  of  diversity 
allowed  within  the  grade.  For  example,  there  may  be  one  type  of 
the  .Low  Middling  that  is  of  a reddish  cast  with  bright  trash,  and 
another  that  has  a gray  or  bluish  cast  with  blackish  trash.  In 
one  sample  the  trash  may  be  in  large  pieces,  while  in  another  it  may 
be  broken  up  in  small  pieces,  known  as  pinhead’^  trash.  The  same 
is  true  to  some  extent  within  the  grade  box  of  each  of  the  nine 
official  grades,  the  diversity  being  less  marked  above  Middling  than 

1 The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  was  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the  original  types  by  the  following  com- 
mittee, it  not  being  intended  that  its  members  should  represent  any  particular  firm  or  exchange,  but  rather 
the  entire  cotton  interests  of  the  United  States: 

Mr.  Nathaniel  N.  Thayer,  chairman  (Barry,  Thayer  & Co.),  Boston,  Mass.;  Mr.  Joseph  A.  Airey  (John 
M.  Parker  & Co.),  New  Orleans,  La.;  Mr.  C.  P,  Baker  (Lawrence  Manufacturing  Co.),  Boston,  Mass.; 
Mr.  Jolm  Martin,  Paris,  Tex.;  Mr.  Lewis  W.  Parker,  Greenville,  S.  C.;  Mr.  James  Akers  (Inman,  Akers 
& Inman),  Atlanta,  Ga.;  Mr.  F.  M.  Crump  (F.  M.  Crump  & Co.),  Memphis,  Tenn.;  Mr.  George  W.  Neville 
(Weld  & Neville),  New  York,  N.  Y.;  Mr.  Charles  A.  Vedder  (J.  D.  Rogers  & Co.),  Galveston,  Tex.  This 
committee,  which  was  unanimous  in  its  recommendation  of  these  grades,  was  assisted  by  the  following 
expert  cotton  classifiers:  Mr.  W.  P.  Barbot,  of  the  classification  committee.  New  York  Cotton  Exchange; 
Mr.  Jules  Mazerat,  chairman  of  the  classification  committee.  New  Orleans  Cotton  Exchange;  Mr.  J.  R. 
Taylor,  cotton  classer,  A.  L.  Wolff  & Co.,  Dallas,  Tex. 

2 Cobb,  N.  A.  United  States  Official  Cotton  Grades.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant 

Industry  Circular  109.  1913. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  GRADING  OF  COTTON. 


9 


below.  In  the  everyday  practice  of  the  cotton  classer,  bales  will  be 
encountered  that  will  pass  as  white  cotton  which  do  not  really  match 
any  particular  type  in  the  standard.  In  such  cases  the  bale  is  assigned 
to  the  nearest  equivalent  grade. 

CARE  OF  GRADE  STANDARDS. 

Very  few  people,  even  among  cotton  merchants  and  spinners,  seem 
to  realize  the  importance  of  protecting  their  standards  from  light  and 
dust.  In  these  standards  only  the  surface  of  the  cotton  shows  the 
grade,  and  exposure  to  light  and  dust  wall  in  a short  time  so  change 
the  appearance  of  the  surface  that  it  does  not  accurately  represent 
the  grade  as  certified.  A special  notice  to  this  effect  appears  on  the 
outside  of  each  box  of  official  grades.  (See  fig.  16,  p.  23.) 

It  has  been  found  necessary  to  compare  the  ^‘working”  standards 
that  are  used  daily  as  copies  in  the  preparation  of  the  official  grades 
with  the  official  standard  each  month.  The  luster  or  bloom  in  the 
higher  grades  is  bleached  out  by  the  light,  and  this,  together  with  the 
dust  that  collects  on  the  cotton,  has  the  effect  of  lowering  the  grade, 
while  the  bleaching  of  the  lower  grades  tends  to  improve  their  appear- 
ance. It  is  also  very  desirable  to  keep  the  grades  stored  in  a dry 
place,  for  moisture  will  cause  the  color  to  darken. 

In  order  to  insure  a permanent  standard,  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture has  had  50  sets  of  the  official  grades  stored  in  large  vacuum 
tubes,  in  accordance  with  a system  devised  by  Dr.  N.  A.  Cobb.  In 
these  tubes  there  is  no  light  to  bleach,  no  air  to  oxidize,  and  no  mois- 
ture to  permit  mildew  or  other  microscopic  growth.  The  vacuum 
sets  will  be  opened  from  time  to  time  for  use  in  preparing  working” 
standards.  Hence  there  will  be  no  changing  of  the  standard  from 
year  to  year,  as  has  been  the  case  heretofore. 

GRADING  BY  STANDARDS. 

It  is  easier  for  beginners  to  match  cotton  against  the  standards  if 
types  of  the  cotton  to  be  graded  are  placed  for  the  time  being  in  a box 
similar  to  the  boxes  containing  the  types  in  the  standards.  (See  fig.  9.) 
The  cotton  in  question  may  then  be  matched  by  placing  the  prepared, 
box  of  cotton  to  be  graded  by  the  side  of  the  respective  boxes  of 
standard  grades  until  the  grade  is  determined.  This  method  gives  a 
greater  surface  for  comparison,  and  also  practically  the  same  light  on 
each  box,  a very  important  matter.  When  samples  are  held  in  the 
hands  while  grading,  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  hold  them  over 
the  standard  grades;  otherwise  dirt,  sand,  and  trash  falling  from  the 
loose  sample  upon  the  standards  will  very  quickly  spoil  the  latter. 

When  the  building  in  which  the  grading  is  to  be  done  is  not  suited 
for  adding  a skylight  (see  fig.  10),  four  or  five  large  windows  may  be 
placed  side  by  side  in  the  wall  on  the  north  side  if  the  room  has  a 
ceiling  10  or  12  feet  high, 

41696°— Bull.  591—14 2 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  591. 


The  table  for  holding  the  grade  boxes  should  have  a top  inclining 
toward  the  light  at  an  angle  of  approximately  30  degrees  where  a 
skylight  is  used,  and  at  about  45  degrees  where  the  side  light  is  used. 

Such  use  of  the  grades  is  being  made  at  a number  of  places,  and  in 
some  cases  daily  price  quotations  are  obtained  for  use  in  connection 

with  the  grades.  This 
method  of  displaying  the 
grades  gives  the  grower  a 
chance  to  find  out  about 
what  grade  of  cotton  he 
has  for  sale,  without  his 
having  to  own  a set  of 
grades. 

When  using  the  grades, 
one  should  be  careful  not 
to  leave  them  open  to  any 
fig.  9.-Gradmg  by  standards.  except  a north  light,  if  pOS- 

sible.  This  light  is  more 
even  than  others  and  not  as  hard  on  the  grades.  The  lids  of  the  grade 
boxes  should  be  kept  open  only  while  the  comparison  is  being  made. 


COMPARISON  OF  AMERICAN  AND  EUROPEAN  STANDARDS. 


The  full  grades  in  both  American  and  European  usage  are  as 
follows : 


Fair. 

Middling  Fair. 
Good  Middling. 


(Low  Middling. 
Good  Ordinary. 
Ordinary. 


Fig.  10. — Sectional  view  of  a skylight  that  may  be  placed  on  the  roof  of  a warehouse  or  cotton  shed,  in 
order  to  get  a north  light  for  grading. 


By  adding  the  prefix  ^‘Strict’’  to  each  of  these  full  grade  names 
the  American  half  grades  are  formed: 


P'air. 

Strict  Middling  Fair. 
Middling  Fair. 

Strict  Good  Middling. 
Good  Middling. 

Strict  Middling. 


Middling. 


Strict  Low  Middling. 
Low  Middling. 

Strict  Good  Ordinary. 
Good  Ordinary. 

Strict  Ordinary, 
Ordinary, 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  GRADING  OF  COTTON.  H 


111  the  same  way  ‘ ‘ Fully  ackled  to  each  of  the  full-grade  names 
will  give  the  European  half  grades: 


Fair. 

Fully  Middling  Fair. 
Middling  Fair. 

Fully  Good  Middling. 
Good  Middling. 

Fully  Middling. 


Middling. 


Fully  Low  Middling. 
Low  Middling. 

Fully  Good  Ordinary. 
Good  Ordinary. 

Fully  Ordinary. 
_Ordinary^ 


DISTRIBUTION 

Off  kid!  An  Ondes 

of  the 

USDepdriment 
of  Aoriculture 


The  United  States 
Official  Cotton  Grades  have 
been  on  sale  for  three 
years  and  nine  months. 

The  present  price  is  $20 
per  set  of  nine  grades. 

The  chart  does  not  show  the  distribution  abroad. 
The  Grades  have  been  sokl  in  Great  Britain, Ger- 
many, France.  Italy,  Belgium,  Japan,  India,  South  Africa, 
Russia,  Mexico,  and  Canada. 

The  Official  Grades  arc  prepared  and  issued  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  accordance  with  law'. 
The  Department  has  no  power  to  dispose  of  the 
Official  Grades  except  by  sale. 


Fig.  11. — Map  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States,  showing  the  distriiiution  of  the  United  States 
official  cotton  grades.  The  locations  of  copies  issued  by  private  parties  are  not  shown.  Including 
these,  about  2,000  sets  of  the  grades  are  in  use. 

In  other  words,  in  European  usage  the  words  Fully”  and  ‘‘Strict” 
are  interchanged  as  compared  with  their  use  in  America.  The  word 
“Barely”  is  used  in  the  same  way  both  here  and  in  Europe;  that  is, 
to  represent  the  quarter  grade  below,  as  “Barely  Middling.” 

The  United  States  standard  grades  have  been  distributed  through- 
out the  cotton  growing  and  manufacturing  States  (fig.  11)  and 


The  American  quarter  grade  above. 


12 


PAHMERS^  BULLETIN  591. 


officially  adopted  by  the  following  cotton  exchanges  and  associa- 
tions : 


New  Orleans. 
Memphis. 

St.  hhuis. 

Cliarleston. 

Natchez. 


Little  Rock. 

Galveston. 

Macon. 

Mobile. 

Oklahoma. 


New  York. 

New  England  Buyers. 
Arkwright  Club. 

Southern  Cotton  Buyers. 
Fall  River  Cotton  Buyers. 


Tliese  standard  grades  have  also  been  adopted  by  others  that  have 
not  gone  through  the  formality  of  a special  vote.  In  a number  of 
markets  exporters  sell  to  the  European  mills  on  the  European  (Idver- 
pool)  classification.  This  is,  of  course,  unfortunate,  and  it  is  hoped 
that  in  time  an  international  standard  may  be  agreed  upon. 

In  June,  1913,  representatives  of  the  American  and  European 
cotton  exchanges  met  at  Liverpool,  and  at  this  c()nference  the  Liver- 
pool Exchange  agreed  to  widen  the  differences  between  their  lower 
grades,  to  become  effective  September  1,  1914,  so  as  to  conform 
more  nearly  to  the  grades  of  the  United  States  standard.  There  is, 
however,  more  color  and  contrast  in  the  lower  grades  (Fully  Low 
Middling  to  Ordinary,  • inclusive)  in  the  new  Liverpool  standard 
than  in  the  United  States  standard.  Liverpool  Fully  Low  Middling 
has  one  type  among  the  twelve  that  is  tinged,  while  the  Low  Middling 
as  a whole  is  grayer  than  the  United  States  standard.  The  Liverpool 
Fully  Good  Ordinary  and  Good  Ordinary  have  four  or  five  types  in 
the  twelve  that  are  “off  color”  as  compared  with  the  United  States 
standard.  The  European  usage  of  the  word  “Fully”  instead  of 
“Strict,”  as  used  in  America,  has  been  retained  in  the  new  Liver- 
pool standard.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  the  grades 
above  Middling  are  very  much  the  same  in  each  standard. 

The  new  Liverpool  standards  evidently  contain  some  cotton  that 
has  been  ginned  with  less  care  than  that  used  in  the  preparation  of 
the  United  States  standard.  The  pressure  of  the  box  lid  on  the 
Liverpool  types  also  gives  the  respective  grades  the  appearance  of 
having  more  leaf  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 

The  name  of  each  of  the  new  Liverpool  standards  (effective  Sep- 
tember 1,  1914)  is  placed  opposite  the  name  of  the  United  States 
standard  to  which  it  most  nearly  conforms. 


UNITED  STATES  STANDARD. 

Middling  Fair. 

Strict  Good  Middling. 

Good  Middling. 

Strict  Middling. 

Middling. 

Strict  Low  Middling. 

Low  Middling. 

Strict  Good  Ordinary. 

Good  Ordinary. 


NEW  LIVERPOOL  STANDARD. 

Middling  Fair.  ‘ 

Fully  Good  Middling. 

Good  Middling. 

Fully  Middling. 

Middling. 

Fully  Low  Middling  (1  tinged  type). 
Low  Middling  (grayer). 

Fully  Good  Ordinary  (off  color). 
Good  Ordinary  (off  color). 

Ordinary. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  GRADING  OF  COTTON. 


13 


GRADE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  DIFFERENT  GROWTHS. 

There  are  certain  grade  characteristics  in  cotton  that  often 
indicate  the  section  of  the  country  in  which  the  cotton  was  grown. 
The  sections  most  commonly  referred  to  in  the  American  cotton 
industry  are  three  in  number  and  give  rise  to  cotton  of  three  regional 
types— Upland,  Gulf,  and  Texas  cotton.  Each  of  these,  however, 
is  subdivided  and  passes  under  many  trade  names  that  more  nearly 
tell  the  character  of  the  cotton  and  where  it  was  grown. 

Upland  cotton.— The  Upland  type  of  cotton  constitutes  the  bulk  of 
the  American  crop  and  is  perhaps  the  most  useful  cotton  grown.  It 
is  produced  almost  throughout  the  inland  districts  of  the  cotton- 
growing States,  but  chiefly  in  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Geor- 
gia, Alabama,  Tennessee,  and  Virginia.  Much  cotton  that  is  grown 
in  the  hilly  parts  of  Mississii)pi,  Louisiana,  and  Arkansas  is  sold  as 
Upland.  This  cotton  averages  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  to  an  inch 
in  length,  although  a number  of  long-staple  varieties  up  to 
inches  in  length  are  being  successfully  grown  in  the  Upland  districts. 
In  parts  of  the  Piedmont  section,  shown  on  the  soil  map  (fig.  12) 
by  the  letter  D,  the  length  is  very  often  more  than  an  inch,  while 
in  the  sand  hills  (fig.  12,  C),  it  may  be  less  than  seven-eighths  of  an 
inch.  Cotton  grown  in  the  Piedmont  section  generally  has  a bright, 
creamy  color,  or  ‘‘bloom,”  that  is  considered  desirable  by  many 
spinners.  The  leaf  is  usually  black  and  in  rather  small  pieces,  while 
in  the  cotton  from  the  sandy  soil  the  color  is  generally  whiter  and 
the  leaf  larger  and  brighter.  Atlantic  States  cotton  changes  color 
faster  when  left  in  the  field  than  Western  cotton.  It  takes  on  a 
bluish  cast  and  is  often  spotted  or  tinged  if  grown  on  a red  clay  soil. 
This  is  no  doubt  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  rainfall  being  greater 
in  the  Eastern  States  than  in  the  Southwest  during  the  gathering 
season.  (See  fig.  13.) 

Gulf  cotton. — As  the  name  indicates.  Gulf  cotton  is  grown  in  the 
States  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  in  the  basin  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River.  In  using  this  name,  many  in  the  trade  seem  to  refer 
to  a cotton  of  1^-inch  staple  or  something  better  than  the  ordi- 
nary seven-eighths  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  Upland  cotton,  regardless 
of  whether  it  is  grown  on  the  Gulf  or  not.  The  length  of  staple, 
however,  does  not  decide  the  grade  or  the  regional  trade  name,  for 
a considerable  quantity  of  1^-inch  to  IJ-inch  cotton  is  grown  in  the 
Upland  districts.  The  general  color  of  Gulf  cotton  is  whiter  and  the 
leaf  often  larger  and  blacker  than  that  in  either  Upland  or  Texas 
cotton. 

The  word  “Gulf”  is  not  much  used  in  the  actual  buying  and 
selling  of  cotton,  other  trade  names  that  have  a more  definite  mean- 
ing being  employed.  The  most  common  of  these  trade  names  are 


14 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  591. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  GRADING  OF  COTTON, 


15 


Fig. 13.— Map  of  the  Southeastern  States,  based  on  the  report  of  the  Bureau  of  the 
Census  of  1911,  showing  the  production  of  cotton  and  also  approximately  the 
division  line  between  Eastern  Upland  cotton  and  Gulf  and  Texas  cotton. 
The  white  dots  show  the  relative  amount  of  cotton  grown  in  the  various  parts 
of  the  cotton  belt.  The  star  shows  the  center  of  production. 


16 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  591. 


Peelers,  Benders,  Rivers,  Canebrake,  and  Red  River,  although  a 
number  of  so-called  varieties  may  be  sold  under  each  of  these  names. 

^‘Peelers  ’’  was  formerly  a varietal  name,  but  it  is  now  applied  rather 
indiscriminately  to  most  of  the  11-inch  Mississippi  Delta  cotton. 

Benders’’  is  not  a varietal  name.  It  is  applied  to  IJ-inch  to  1-^ 
inch  cotton  of  good  body  that  is  grown  along  the  Mississippi,  Arkansas, 
and  White  Rivers.  The  word  is  said  to  have  applied  originally  only 
to  cotton  that  grew  in  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Arkansas  along  the 
bends  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

^‘Rivers”  is  used  in  referring  to  cotton  having  a staple  of  1^^  to  1| 
inches,  though  if  the  cotton  has  a light  body  it  is  sometimes  called 
Creeks.” 

“Canebrake”  is  the  name  applied  to  cotton  that  is  grown  in  the 
south-central  part  of  Alabama  on  the  strip  of  black  prairie  land  shown 
on  the  soil  map  (fig.  12)  by  the  letter  i?  (small).  Most  of  this  cotton 
has  a strong  li^-inch  staple  and  brings  a higher  price  than  other 
Alabama  cotton. 

Texas  cotton. — “Texas”  is  the  trade  name  given  to  cotton  grown  in 
Texas  and  Oklahoma.  This  generally  has  about  the  same  length  of 
staple  as  Upland  cotton  except  in  the  river  basins  and  black  prairie, 
where  the  length  is  usually  1 inches.  The  character  of  the  fiber  of 
Texas  cotton  varies  considerably  from  year  to  year.  When  the  grow- 
ing season  is  dry,  the  fiber  is  harsher  and  shorter,  while  the  color  may 
have  a reddish  tinge.  Many  of  the  leaves  are  dried  up  early  in  the 
picking  season  by  the  heat  and  drought.  This,  no  doubt,  accounts  for 
the  trash  in  this  cotton  being  of  a brighter  color  and  more  broken  or 
peppery  than  in  either  the  Gulf  or  Atlantic  States  cotton.  A large 
quantity  of  boll  hulls,  shale,  and  stalk  is  often  found  in  this  growth 
of  cotton,  especially  in  Oklahoma  and  northern  Texas,  where  all  of 
the  top  crop  does  not  mature,  owing  to  the  shorter  growing  season. 
These  half-opened  bolls  and  the  bolls  that  do  not  open  at  all  are  usually 
ginned  on  a “double-rib”  huller  gin,  and  the  cotton  is  known  in  the 
trade  as  “hollies.”  Another  type  of  cotton  where  the  open  and 
mature  bolls  have  been  gathered  with  the  burr  is  found  in  this  section 
near  the  end  of  the  picking  season.  This  cotton,  although  often 
resembling  hollies,  has  a superior  fiber  and  may  be  graded  in  the 
usual  way. 

RELATIVE  VALUES  OF  DIFFERENT  GRADES.^ 

The  relative  values  of  the  grades  of  sound  white  cotton,  other  char- 
acteristics being  equal,  depend  chiefly  upon  the  quantity  of  dirt  and 
trash,  etc.,  that  goes  to  waste  in  the  manufacturing  process.  The 
difference  in  price,  however,  will  vary  also  in  accordance  with  supply 

1 Experiments  are  now  being  made  in  the  OfTice  of  Agricultural  Technology  and  Cotton  Standardization 
to  determine  the  quantity  of  waste,  the  tensile  strength,  and  the  bleaching  qualities  of  the  grades  as  stand- 
ardized by  the  United  States  Government. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  GRADING  OP  COTTON. 


17 


and  demand.  During  a season  when  the  grades  above  Middhng  are 
scarce,  their  premium  on  the  price  of  Middhng  is  raised,  while  the 
penalty  on  the  grades  below  Middling  is  also  greater.  Table  I shows 
the  quotations  at  various  markets  on  February  2,  1914,  for  Low  Mid- 
dhng, Middling,  and  Good  Middling  short-staple  cotton  based  on  the 
United  States  standard  of  classification,  while  figure  15  shows  the 
relative  amount  of  trash  in  these  grades. 


Table  I. — Quotations,  based  on  the  United  States  standard,  at  different  markets  for  the 
same  grades  of  short-staple  cotton,  February  2,  1914. 


Market. 

Low  Mid- 
dling. 

Middling. 

Good 

Middling. 

New  Orleans 

Cents. 

12.06 

Cents. 

12.81 

CerOi. 

13.69 

Galveston 

11.44 

12.87 

13.69 

Memphis 

12.63 

13.25 

13. 75 

Mobile 

11.56 

12.69 

13. 19 

Charleston 

11.75 

12. 75 

13.25 

St.  Louis 

12.25 

13.25 

13. 88 

Little  Rock 

11.50 

12.50 

13.00 

The  reader  wiU  note  that  a given  grade  is  quoted  on  the  same  day  at 
different  prices  in  the  various  markets.  Tliis  difference  in  price  may 
be  due  to  a number  of  causes:  (1)  The  difference  in  the  character  of 
the  cotton  that  is  marketed  at  the  various  points,  (2)  the  facilities  of 
the  market  as  a shipping  point  to  the  eastern  or  European  mihs,  (3) 
the  different  ways  in  which  the  ofhcial  quotations  are  made  by  the 
respective  markets,  and  (4)  the  supply  and  demand  for  the  different 
grades.  There  is  a greater  difference  between  the  prices  quoted  for 
Low  Middling  than  for  Mddling,  which  is  partly  due,  no  doubt,  to 
differences  of  opinion  in  the  trade  as  to  the  relative  values  of  the  vari- 
ous grades  in  comparison  with  Middling. 

Most  of  the  cities  named  are  concentration  points,  that  is,  places  to 
which  the  cotton  from  the  near-by  smaller  markets  is  sent.  The 
basic  price  paid  in  the  surrounding  small,  or  primary,  markets  where 
the  cotton  is  bought  direct  from  the  growers  would,  of  course,  be  less, 
depending,  among  many  other  tilings,  upon  the  local  buyers^  knowl- 
edge of  cotton,^  as  well  as  the  necessary  cost  for  transporting  the  cot- 
ton to  the  concentration  points. 

COMMERCIAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  NEW  ORLEANS  SPOT  MARKET. 

Table  II  shows  what  a complex  question  the  classification  of  cotton 
is  in  the  large  spot  markets,  where  aU  of  the  different  grades  and 
classes  of  cotton  are  found.  The  wliite  grades  are  used  as  the  stand- 
ard, and  the  respective  classes  of  colored  cottons  are  shown  for  a par- 
ticular day  as  so  much  off  the  price  of  the  respective  white  grades. 


1 Mr.  Charles  J.  Brand,  in  charge  (A  the  Office  of  Markets,  had  a survey  made  of  the  primary  markets  in 
Oklahoma  in  the  season  of  1913.  He  found  that  on  the  same  day  and  at  the  same  point  the  lower  grades 
of  cotton  very  often  sold  for  better  prices  than  did  the  higher  grades,  as  well  as  vice  versa. 


18 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  591. 


Table  II. — Quotations  on  the  various  grades  of  short-staple  cotton  when  offcolor,  spotted, 
tinged,  or  stained  at  New  Orleans,  May  9,  1914.  ’ 


Grade. 


I>ow  Ordinary.' 

Ordinary 

Good  Ordinary 

Strict  Good  Ordinary. 
Low  Middling. .... . . . . 

Strict  Low  Middling. . 

Middling 

Strict  Middling 

Good  Middling 

Strict  Good  Middling. 

Middling  Fair 

Middling  Fair  to  Fair. 
Fair 


stand- 

ard. 

Off 

color. 

Spotted. 

Light 

tinged. 

Tinged. 

Light 

stained. 

Stained. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

11^ 

llH 

} ioff. 

I 

loff. 

i liofT. 

lioff. 

toff. 

Ioff. 

1 

If  off. 

Ifoff. 

12* 

13 

] 

Jofi. 

|off. 

} ioff. 

loff. 

131 

13* 

w 

a 14* 
«14* 

> 1 off. 

Joff. 

icff. 

ioff. 

ioff. 

li  off. 

a 15* 

a Nominal. 


COMMERCIAL  DIFFERENCES  AT  NEW  YORK. 


On  the,.New  York  Cotton  Exchange  the  grade  differences  were 
formerly  fixed  three  times  each  year — in  September,  November,  and 
February.  The  exchange  rules  have  been  recently  revised  to  pro- 
vide for  a monthly  revision  of  grade  differences,  beginning  Septem- 
ber 9,  1915, 

The  United  States  standard  grades  have  been  adopted  by  the 
New  York  Exchange,  and  are  now  (May  1,  1914)  being  used  for  new 
contracts.  The  grade  differences  based  on  the  official  standards, 
however,  have  not  as  yet  been  fixed. 


RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  DIFFERENT  LENGTHS  OF  STAPLE. 

Long-staple  cotton,  with  the  exception  of  Sea  Island  and  Egyp- 
tian cotton,  is  graded  in  practically  the  same  way  as  short-staple 
cotton,  although  graders  are  usually  more  liberal  as  regards  curls, 
strings,  and  general  smoothness  of  the  cotton.  The  reason  for  this 
is  that  in  ginning  staple  cotton  with  either  the  saw  or  roUer  gin  the 
fibers  become  more  tangled,  forming  curls  and  strings  which  affect 
the  general  smoothness  of  the  cotton.  Another  reason  is  that  the 
length  of  long-staple  cotton  is  mainly  what  decides  the  price.  The 
buyer  looking  for  a lot  of  cotton  with  a desired  length  of  staple  will 
not  be  as  particular  with  the  grade  as  with  the  staple. 

It  is  usual  in  the  trade  to  caU  cotton  that  averages  in  length  of  staple 
IJ  inches  or  more  staple  cotton,’^  and  that  less  than  1 J inches  ^^short- 
staple  cotton.’’  There  is  no  fixed  length  of  staple  used  as  a basis  in 
many  of  the  markets  for  what  is  known  as  short  cotton.  Almost 
no  difference  is  made  by  local  buyers  in  the  price  between  different 
lengths  of  cotton  ranging  from  sevemeighths  of  an  inch  to  1 ins  inches 
ff  the  grade  and  quality  are  equal.  One-inch  cotton,  however,  is 
worth  perhaps  just  as  much  more  above  seven-eighths-inch  cotton 
as  Good  Middling  is  worth  above  Middling  and  should  bring  a cor- 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  (;RADIN( 


OF  COTTON 


19 


Fig.  14.— Laboratory  in  which  the  official  grades  are  prepared,  showing  skylights  with  northern  exposure. 


20 


Middling 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  GRADING  OF  COTTON. 


21 


responding  premium.  We  believe  it  is  only  a question  of  time  when 
closer  distinctions  will  be  made  in  this  respect.^ 

Table  III  shows  quotations  from  responsible  firms  at  New  Orleans 
and  Vicksburg,  respectively,  on  April  1,  1913,  for  the  various  grades 
and  lengths  of  staple  above  1 inch. 

Table  III. — Quotations  on  the  various  grades  of  cotton  having  lengths  of  staple  of  1 inch 
or  more,  at  New  Orleans  and  Vicksburg^  April  1,  1913. 


Grade. 

New  Orleans. 

Vicksburg. 

1 

1* 

i| 

lA 

n 

IN 

1| 

li^ 

1| 

1 

1* 

ll 

IN 

n 

If 

1| 

MiHdlinjr  "Fair 

13J 

Rtrir.t  Good  Middlinfr 

121 

14 

16i 

12| 

12f 

14| 

I5i 

17 

18 

20 

Good  Middling 

12f 

13| 

16 

17 

18 

19i 

21 

22 

22| 

12| 

14 

15| 

I6i 

17i 

19| 

Strict  Middling 

12^ 

13i 

15| 

in 

19 

20J 

21| 

22 

12| 

12| 

13| 

15 

17| 

Middling 

12| 

12| 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

20 

HI 

12| 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

Strict  Low  Middhng 

12A 

12H 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

19 

Ilf 

Hi 

12| 

13| 

16| 

Low  Middling 

111 

12A 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

18 

HI 

HI 

HI 

12| 

13 

14 

15 

Strict  Good  Ordinary 

111 

12 

m 

13 

14 

15 

16 

16 

16 

10| 

10| 

11 

H| 

12 

13 

14 

Good  Ordinary 

n, 

Hi 

12 

m 

13i 

14 

HI 

15 

15 

10| 

lOJ 

lOf 

11 

HI 

12 

13 

These  quotations  show  that  the  premiums  are  relatively  higher 
for  the  grades  above  Middling  and  the  penalties  greater  for  the  grades 
below  Middling  than  with  short  cotton.  Nevertheless,  every  addi- 
tional one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  the  length  of  the  staple  usually 
adds  as  much  to  the  market  value  of  the  cotton  as  does  a full  grade  in 
the  grading.  This  is  especially  true  for  staples  up  to  If  inches  in 
length.  There  is  a greater  difference  of  opinion,  however,  concerning 
length  of  staple  than  there  is  concerning  the  grade. 

Different  experts  vary  considerably  in  their  estimates  of  the  length 
of  the  same  sample  of  cotton,  sometimes  as  much  as  one-fourth  of  an 
inch.  This  is  often  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that  aU  do  not  pull 
the  staple  in  the  same  way.  A rule  used  for  measuring  the  drawn 
sample,  therefore,  is  not  always  a sure  index  of  the  length,  for  one 
classer  when  drawing  may  discard  more  short  fibers  than  another. 
If,  however,  every  one  had  the  same  standard  sample  of  cotton  for 
1 inch.  If  inches,  and  If  inches,  etc.,  the  cotton  could  be  compared 
with  the  standard,  both  being  puUed  in  the  same  way,  and  doubtless  a 
closer  estimate  could  be  made.^ 

The  trade  realizes  the  need  of  such  a standard,  but  the  difficulty 
of  maintaining  the  same  standard  year  after  year  for  the  different 
lengths  has  in  the  past  seemed  insuperable. 

In  view  of  these  difficulties,  the  New  England  terms  for  buying  and 
selling  cotton  contain  the  following  rule: 

The  classers  shall  not  undertake  to  declare  the  length  of  any  staple,  but  shall  judge 
the  length  of  staple  of  any  lot  of  cotton  submitted  to  them  only  in  comparison  with  the 
length  of  staple  of  a type  which  has  been  agreed  upon  as  a standard  by  the  purchaser 
and  seller,  and  which  must  be  submitted  with  the  samples  of  the  lot  in  question. 


1 For  a discussion  of  the  agricultural  importance  of  such  distinctions  in  encouraging  improvement  in 
cotton  production,  see  Cook,  O.  F.,  The  relation  of  cotton  buying  to  cotton  growing,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  Bulletin  60, 1914. 

? The  length  standards  devised  by  Dr.  N.  A.  Cobb  are  being  utilized  by  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  tO 
collect  data  as  to  the  amount  of  various  lengths  of  staple  used  in  American  mills. 


22 


FARMEKS'  BULLETIN  591. 
SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSIONS. 


The  grade  of  a sample  of  cotton  is  determined  by  the  quantity  of 
leaf,  dirt,  sand,  motes,  neps,  gin-cut  or  stringy  fiber,  and  cut  seed  it 
contains,  together  with  its  color. 

Cotton  should  be  dry  when  ginned,  and  the  saws,  brushes,  and 
other  parts  of  the  gin  should  be  in  good  condition  if  a smooth  sample 
is  to  be  obtained. 

Cleaners  used  in  connection  with  the  ginning  will  improve  the  cot- 
ton from  one  to  two  grades. 

Early  pickings  should  neither  be  mixed  nor  ginned  with  later  pick- 
ings that  are  of  a lower  grade,  since  the  price  paid  for  a bale  of  cotton 
is  based  on  the  lowest  grade  it  contains  rather  than  on  the  highest 
grade. 

Cotton  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  weather;  moisture  causes  it  to 
mildew  and  so  lowers  the  grade. 

The  new  Liverpool  standards,  which  are  almost  equivalent  to  the 
United  States  standards,  go  into  effect  September  1,  1914.  The 
lower  Liverpool  grades  (Fully  Low  Middling  to  ‘Ordinary)  allow  more 
variations  and  contrast  in  color  than  the  United  States  standards. 

The  United  States  official  cotton  grades  should  be  carefully  pro- 
tected. The  lid  on  the  box  containing  them  should  be  open  only 
when  a comparison  is  being  made.  Constant  light  and  dust  will  ren- 
der the  grades  unfit  for  use  within  a comparatively  short  time.  See 
the  grade  label  (fig.  16). 

Low  Middling,  Middling,  and  Good  Middling  cover  the  bulk  of 
white  cotton  grown  in  an  average  season,  and  a knowledge  of  these 
three  giades  is  usually  sufficient  for  the  grower’s  use. 

In  the  season  of  1913-14  in  markets  using  the  United  States  stand- 
ard grades.  Low  Middling  Upland  cotton  of  seven-eighths  of  an  inch 
to  1-inch  staple  sold  for  approximately  1 cent  below  Middling,  and 
Good  Middling  sold  for  five-eighths  of  a cent  above  Middling. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  GRADING  OF  COTTON. 


O 


23 


WASHINGTON  : GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


Fig.  16.— Facsimile  label  of  the  Middling  tj^ie  box,  United  States  official  cotton  grades.  Special  attention  is 
called  to  the  directions  against  allowing  light  and  dust  to  destroy  the  grade. 


U.S.DER\RTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Forest  Service,  Henry  S.  Graves,  Forester, 

June  11,  1914. 


STOCK- WATERING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING 

LANDS. 


By  Will  C.  Barnes,  Inspector  of  Grazing. 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Need  for  Water  on  the  Range 1 

Natural  Watering  Places  and  Their  Improvement 4 

Artificial  Watering  Places ^ 


NEED  FOR  WATER  ON  THE  RANGE. 

On  many  areas  throughout  the  Western  range  country  the  water 
supply  is  not  sufficient  for  the  number  of  stock  the  forage  will  support 
so  that  the  lands  must  be 
understocked  in  order  to 
use  them  at  all.  On  other 
areas  the  water  supply  is 
sufficient  for  all  the  stock 
the  range  will  carry,  but  is 
not  permanent,  and  the 
animals  must  therefore  be 
removed  before  the  season 
Is  over.  Still  other  areas 
are  made  practically  worth- 
less  for  stock  purposes  by 
the  absence  of  water  ex- 
cept at  rare  intervals  during  the  winter,  when  the  presence  of 
snow  allows  their  temporary  use. 

The  natural  growth  of  the  stock  industry  makes  it  imperative  that 
all  grazing  lands  should  be  brought  to  a condition  where  they  can  be 
utilized  to  their  full  capacity.  No  stock  range  can  be  properly  utihzed 
if  there  is  an  uneven  distribution  of  water. 

Note.— This  bulletin  gives  suggestions  for  the  development  and  improvement  of  stock-watering  places; 
it  deals  more  especially  with  conditions  found  within  the  N ational  F orests.  It  is  intended  for  distribution 
throughout  the  range  country. 


42498°— Bull.  592-14- 


-1 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN^  592. 


The  suggestions  given  in  this  bulletin  for  improving  tlie  water  sup- 
ply on  grazing  areas  in  the  West  are  the  result  of  the  experience  of  the 
Forest  Service  in  adding  to  or  developing  the  water  supply  upon 
grazing  areas  on  the  National  Forests,  where  the  aim  is  to  open  up  all 
new  and  heretofore  practically  unused  range,  to  utilize  more  com- 
pletely the  forage  on  ranges  now  in  use,  and  to  insure  a better  control 
of  the  ranges  themselves.  In  all,  a total  of  676  separate  water  im- 
provement projects  have  been  developed  witliin  the  National  Forests; 
329  by  the  users  of  the  range  themselves,  172  through  cooperation 
between  the  Service  and  the  users,  and  175  by  the  Forest  Service 
alone.  Of  these  676  improvements,  378  are  springs  or  seeps,  286 
are  reservoirs  or  tanks,  while  the  rest  are  wells,  trails,  and  the  like. 

DAILY  WATER  REQUIREMENTS  OF  LIVE  STOCK. 

The  first  point  to  be  considered  in  developing  the  water  resources 
on  grazing  areas  is  the  amount  of  water  necessary  for  individual 
animals  of  each  class  to  be  grazed.  Unfortunately,  no  records  have 
been  kept  or  studies  made  of  the  requirements  of  stock  grazing  on 
the  open  range.  However,  it  is  known  what  amount  of  water  is 
consumed  by  nonrange  stock  fed  under  ordinary  farm  conditions. 
Observations  of  the  amount  of  water  consumed  by  horses  under 
varying  conditions  of  work  and  weather  indicate  a daily  consump- 
tion of  between  50  and  110  pounds,  or  from  6 to  13  gallons.  A pair 
of  mules  at  the  Oklahoma  State  Experiment  Station  drank,  during 
hot  weather,  113  pounds  (13.6  gallons)  per  head  daily,  while  one 
day  they  drank  175  pounds  each.^  Prof.  Henry,  in  liis  work,  ‘‘Feeds 
and  Feeding,”  says:  “In  Germany  a full-grown  ox  placed  in  a respi- 
ration chamber  drank  123.7  pounds  (14.9  gallons)  of  water  in  24 
hours.”  At  the  Pennsylvania  State  Experiment  Station  cows  fed 
fresh  grass  consumed  60  pounds  (7.2  gallons)  each  per  day,  while 
others  fed  dry  grass  drank  107  pounds  (13  gallons)  per  day.  The 
New  York  State  Experiment  Station  found  that  dry  cows  drank  65 
per  cent  as  much  as  cows  giving  milk.  Sheep  on  feed  in  Colorado 
consumed  approximately  5 pounds  of  water  (2.5  quarts)  per  head  per 
day.  In  Michigan,  on  almost  the  same  class  of  feed,  grain  and 
hay,  sheep  consumed  from  1.4  to  2.8  pounds  of  water  per  day.  Prof. 
Henry  says:  “A  sheep  needs  from  1 to  6 quarts  of  water  daily,  ac- 
cording to  feed  and  weather.”  Forest  officers  estimate  the  average 
daily  demand  for  water  by  the  several  classes  of  stock  using  National 
Forest  range  to  be  from  8 to  10  gallons  for  cattle,  and  from  0.5  to  2 
gallons  for  sheep.  In  providing  for  a water  supply  for  the  different 
classes  of  stock,  it  will  be  fairly  safe  to  estimate,  therefore,  not  less 
than  10  gallons  per  head  per  day  for  cattle  and  horses,  and  1 J gallons 
per  day  for  sheep.  Naturally  this  amount  will  vary  with  the  season, 


Farmers’  Bulletin  170,  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding,  p.  26. 


STOCK-WATERING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS.  3 

and  with  the  condition  of  the  feed,  whether  green  and  lush  or  burnt 
and  dry. 

When  the  feed  is  very  fresh  and  the  morning  dews  are  heavy,  the 
herd  will  often  go  for  comparatively  long  periods  without  needing 
water  other  than  that  secured  from  their  food.  Under  such  con- 
ditions herders  in  the  high  mountain  meadows  usually  do  not  take 
their  bands  to  water  more  often  than  once  in  every  8 or  10  days,  if 
the  supply  is  some  distance  away.  Cattle,  on  the  same  class  of  feed 
and  under  similar  conditions,  will  also  need  less  water  than  ordinarily. 

RELATION  OF  WATER  SUPPLY  TO  FOOD  PRODUCTION. 

Sufficient  water  at  all  times  is  absolutely  necessary  to  enable 
stock  to  reach  a marketable  condition.  However  strong  or  plenti- 
ful the  grass  and  forage  on  a given  area  may  be,  the  animals  using  it 
must  have  all  the  water  they  need  or  they  will  not  thrive. 

It  may  be  taken  as  a fact  that  a full  and  easily  reached  supply 
of  water  is  quite  as  necessary  to  range  stock  as  a supply  of  grass  and 
forage.  They  can  not  be  fattened  and  turned  off  in  a marketable 
form  without  both,  but  if  it  is  merely  a question  of  hving  through 
the  year,  regardless  of  fitting  them  for  market,  a short  grass  supply 
is  less  likely  to  result  in  disaster  than  is  lack  of  water. 

WARM  AND  COLD  WATER. 

Prof.  Henryk  finds  that,  since  the  temperature  of  the  water  taken 
into  the  body  must  be  raised  to  the  temperature  of  the  body,  ani- 
mals exposed  to  cold,  especially  those  in  poor  condition,  will  be 
benefited  by  drinking  warm  water.  In  this  connection,  the  writer 
for  several  years  carefully  observed  a large  number  of  cattle  which 
watered  regularly  at  a windmill  in  New  Mexico.  Though  in  winter 
large  openings  were  cut  in  the  ice  on  the  overflow  pond,  where  the 
cattle  generally  watered  in  summer,  so  that  the  water  along  the  sides 
was  entirely  clear  and  easily  reached,  the  cattle  would  invariably  go 
to  the  troughs  at  the  mill,  wliich  were  free  from  ice  and  where  the 
water  was  comparatively  warm.  In  range  improvement,  therefore, 
the  advantage  of  warm  over  cold  water  should  be  taken  into  account. 

DISTANCE  RANGE  STOCK  SHOULD  TRAVEL  TO  WATER. 

Another  thing  to  consider  in  locating  watering  places  is  the  nature 
of  the  country  over  which  the  stock  must  travel  to  reach  them. 
Cattle  and  horses  will  go  long  distances  for  water  downhill  in  prefer- 
ence to  going  comparatively  short  distances  uphill.  They  will  also  go 
long  distances  to  water  on  smooth,  fairly  level  ground  in  preference 
to  going  short  distances  down  some  steep,  rocky  canyon  or  mountain 


Feeds  and  Feeding,  p.  64. 


4 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN,  592. 

side.  Though  cattle  and  horses  dishke  to  go  down  a steep  hill,  they 
will  feed  up  one  very  readily.  It  is  an  old  range  saying  that  a small 
boy  can  drive  500  head  of  cattle  up  a mountain  side,  though  it  would 
require  a dozen  men  and  some  hard  work  to  drive  them  down. 

Observations  on  the  National  Forests  indicate  that  on  average 
ranges  cattle  should  not  be  required  to  go  more  than  2 miles  to  reach 
water,  if  they  are  expected  to  be  in  marketable  condition  in  the  fall. 
Under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  however,  they  may  travel  as 
much  as  4 miles,  though  in  extremely  rough,  mountainous  country 
the  maximum  distance  should  be  nearer  half  a mile. 

NATURAL  WATERING  PLACES  AND  THEIR  IMPROVEMENT. 

SPRINGS. 

Throughout  the  West  the  words  spring’’  and  ^'seep”  are  very 
generally  used  to  designate  one  particular  source  of  water  supply. 
By  spring  is  meant  a natural  outpouring  of  subterranean  waters 
wliich  find  their  way  to  the  surface  through  some  crevice  in  the 
earth,  with  a fairly  steady  flow  sufflcient  for  stock- watering  purposes. 
A seep,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a very  small  or  intermittent  flow, 
and  often  forms  merely  a wet  place  on  the  side  of  some  lull  or  in  some 
open  spot.  The  flow  from  ordinary  springs  can  be  increased  by 
comparatively  simple  means,  and  even  seeps  may  be  developed  and 
made  a source  of  water  supply  for  a considerable  number  of  live  stock. 

Tlie  work  of  cleaning  out  and  improving  a spring  may  be  done  in 
several  ways.  If  the  flow  of  water  is  so  rapid  as  to  hinder  digging, 
and  bailing  will  not  do,  a small  hand  pump  may  be  used  to  keep  down 
the  flow.  An  ordinary  iron  pitcher  pump  on  a 1 J or  2 inch  pipe  will 
handle  a large  amount  of  water  at  the  expenditure  of  very  little 
labor.  Where  one  of  these  is  not  available,  a homemade  pump  may 
be  constructed  from  a 4 or  5 inch  galvanized-iron  tube  of  sufficient 
length,  with  the  necessary  overflow  spout.  A homemade  valve 
with  a straight  wooden  pole  handle,  worked  either  by  hand  or  by  a 
pump  handle,  will  cost  little,  and  will  raise  a maximum  amount  of 
dirty  and  muddy  water  with  a minimum  of  power. 

When  the  water  is  disposed  of  the  ground  about  the  spring  should  be 
dug  out.  To  determine  how  deep  to  make  the  excavation,  take  a long 
pole,  or  preferably  an  iron  rod  f or  J inch  in  diameter,  such  as  every 
village  blacksmith  has  on  hand,  sharpen  the  point,  and  work  down 
as  a sounder.  If  the  rod  is  not  long  enough,  cut  a thread  on  the  ends 
of  two  pieces  and  join  them  with  the  common  coupling  used  for  iron 
pump  rods.  In  deciding  how  deep  to  dig  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  closer  to  bedrock  the  curbing  goes,  the  stronger  and  steadier 
will  be  the  flow.  In  few  springs  does  the  flow  come  from  a single  open- 
ing, but  when  the  spring  is  clear  it  is  easy  to  discover  the  several  small 
holes  through  which  the  water  flnds  its  way  out  of  the  ground. 


STOCK-WATERING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS. 


5 


Curling. — Wood  is  the  poorest  material  for  curbing  springs;  cement 
the  best.  Though  wood  submerged  in  water  will  last  a reasonably 
long  time,  that  part  of  the  curbing  above  the  permanent  water  line 
must  be  renewed  at  least  every  5 or  6 years.  Stone  and  rock  are 
better  than  wood  and  are  usually  available.  They  make  a substan- 
tial and  lasting  wall  at  a minimum  cost.  Wherever  possible  stone 
should  be  laid  in  cement  to  keep  out  surface  waters  from  the  spring. 

Of  all  curbing  materials,  cement  is  the  most  permanent  and  costs 
least  for  repairs  and  upkeep.  Cement  curbing  may  be  constructed  in 
the  ordinary  way  with  forms,  and  reinforced  with  wire  or  other 
material,  or  it  may  be  built  of  blocks.  Blocks  are  by  far  the  best, 
since  they  may  be  molded  in  accordance  with  the  shape  of  the  excava- 
tion so  as  to  key  into  one  another  and  form  a perfectly  solid  wall  which 
will  resist  tremendous  pressure  from  the  sides. 

The  amount  of  material  needed  for  cement  curbing  is  small,  and 
may  often  cost  not  much  more  than  lumber.  Cement  is  now  regularly 
carried  in  stock  by  dealers  in  almost  every  small  town,  and  the  sand 
and  broken  rock  needed  can  nearly  always  be  secured  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  spring. 

Walls  luilt  on  the  surface. — Sometimes  the  earth  about  the  spring  is 
badly  cut  or  damaged  by  stock,  or  the  spring  may  lie  in  the  middle  of 
some  bog  hole  or  swamp.  In  such  cases  the  sides  of  the  excavation 
are  not  likely  to  stand  up  during  the  process  of  digging.  Often,  too, 
quicksand  will  run  in  faster  than  it  can  be  removed.  When  one  of 
these  conditions  presents  itself,  it  has  been  found  advisable  in  build- 
ing the  curbing  wall  to  make  a flat  foundation  frame  of  2 or  3 inch 
plank  the  size  of  the  excavation  and  a few  inches  wider  than  the  width 
of  the  proposed  wall.  This  is  laid  on  the  ground  around  the  spring, 
and  the  walls,  whether  of  stone,  cement,  or  cement  blocks,  built  upon 
it.  The  weight  of  the  material  upon  the  frame  will  force  the  latter 
down  as  the  earth  and  sand  are  removed  from  under  it,  and  with  a 
little  care  the  work  of  erecting  the  wall  can  be  carried  on  above 
ground  while  the  frame  slowly  settles  down  into  the  spring.  If 
cement  is  used  the  forms  can  be  set  upon  the  frame  and  built  up  foot 
by  foot  as  it  sinks.  When  the  work  is  finished  and  the  cement  prop- 
erly hardened,  the  forms  inside  of  the  wall  can  be  torn  out  and  those 
behind  allowed  to  remain.  This  foundation-frame  method  will  also 
be  found  convenient  in  building  a rough  wall  of  stone  or  rock,  since 
the  stones  can  be  better  matched  and  fitted  together  when  the  work 
is  done  above  ground.  Moreover,  if  it  is  not  convenient  to  excavate 
entirely  down  to  bedrock  or  solid  earth,  the  frame  furnishes  a base 
which  in  most  cases  prevents  any  further  settlement  of  the  wall. 
Even  if  the  wall  should  settle,  it  would  do  so  evenly,  and  could  be 
built  up  again  on  top  without  in  the  least  disturbing  the  substructure. 


6 


S'ARMERS^  BULLETIN,  592. 

Raising  the  level  of  a spring. — Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  raise  the 
level  of  a spring  so  that  the  water  can  be  more  easily  carried  to  the 
troughs.  This  can  be  done  during  the  course  of  the  general  improve- 
ment work  if  the  origin  or  head  of  the  spring  is  high  enough  above  the 
outlet,  and  the  surrounding  earth  sufficiently  firm  to  stand  the  neces- 
sary pressure.  To  determine  these  facts  place  a section  of  iron  pipe, 
large  enough  to  carry  off  the  flow  and  with  plenty  of  additional  room  to 
provide  for  its  becoming  partly  clogged  by  substances  of  any  kind,  in 
the  retaining  wall  when  the  latter  is  built  up  to  the  height  to  which  the 
water  has  always  risen.  Then,  when  the  wall  is  built  up  6 inches  far- 
ther, place  in  it  another  pipe  similar  to  the  first.  Then  drive  into  the 
lower  pipe  a wooden  plug  and  see  if  the  water  will  rise  to  the  next 
outlet.  Before  closing  the  first  pipe  measure  the  flow  of  the  spring 
by  observing  how  long  it  takes  to  fill  a vessel  of  known  capacity, 
and  do  the  same  thing  after  the  pipe  has  been  closed,  in  order  to 
see  whether  in  the  raising  process  there  has  been  any  loss  of  flow. 
Experience  has  shown  that  if  the  flow  is  decreased  more  than  50 
per  cent  it  is  better  not  to  attempt  to  raise  the  spring.  If  the 
spring  loses  nothing  by  the  additional  raise  in  its  outlet,  however, 
the  process  can  be  continued  by  putting  in  new  outlets  and  closing 
the  lower  ones  until  the  water  has  been  forced  to  rise  to  the  desired 
height. 

Should  the  flow  cease  or  refuse  to  rise  to  the  new  height  during  the 
tests  with  the  first  or  second  pipes,  it  may  be  because  the  water  has 
broken  out  at  some  other  point.  This  is  especially  likely  to  occur 
when  the  spring  is  in  a soft  spot,  such  as  a swamp  or  bog  hole.  If  after 
an  examination  in  the  vicinity  of  the  spring  this  is  found  to  be  the 
case,  the  ground  about  the  spring  may  be  loaded  sufficiently  to  stop 
the  leaking.  A solid  corduroy  floor  of  logs  should  first  be  laid  about 
the  spring  and  extended  outward  as  far  as  practicable  and  then 
weighted  down  with  rock.  The  more  rock  used,  of  course,  the  better 
it  will  be.  When  the  floor  has  settled  as  far  as  it  seems  likely  to  do,  a 
top  covering  of  dirt  should  be  put  on  to  make  a good  footing  around 
the  spring.  The  strength  of  the  spring  should  then  be  tested  again, 
but  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  force  the  water  higher  until  the  cor- 
duroy floor  has  had  plenty  of  time  to  settle  down  and  stop  the  outside 
leakage.  After  a few  months,  however,  additional  pipe  openings  may 
be  placed  in  the  waU.  if  there  is  need  for  raising  the  flow  further.  One 
instance  is  known  where  the  water  in  a spring  was  raised  2 feet  by 
this  method.  However,  there  is  a certain  element  of  chance  in  this 
raising  process  through  the  possibility  of  losing  the  flow  which  the 
person  handling  a project  must  carefully  consider  before  beginning 
operations.  If  the  water  finds  another  channel  too  far  back  from  the 
spring,  the  flow  can  not  be  recovered  through  corduroy  work  as  de- 
scribed above. 


STOCK- WATERING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS.  7 


Location  of  troughs. — Once  the  need  for  improving  a spring  has  been 
settled,  the  next  step  is  to  locate  the  spot  where  the  watering  troughs 
should  be  placed.  On  theKaibab  National  Forest,  Ariz.,  water  has 
been  piped  out  from  rough  canyons  over  a distance  of  more  than 
miles,  and  in  several  other  cases  for  more  than  1,000  feet.  In 
each  instance,  however,  the  additional  amount  of  range  gained  and 
the  very  rough  nature  of  the  country  immediately  about  the  springs 
justified  the  expense.  Ordinarily  it  wiU  not  be  profitable  to  pipe 
water  any  such  distances.  On  a large  number  of  water  improvements 
within  National  Forests  the  average  length  of  pipe  between  the  spring 
and  the  troughs  is  approximately  33  feet;  on  the  majority  of  improve- 
ments the  average  distance  is  seldom  more  than  25  feet.  However, 
if  placing  the  trough  some  distance  from  the  spring  will  save  stock 
much  travel  up  and  down  a very  rocky  trail,  or  even  a hah  mile  up 
some  sandy  wash,  it  may  well  be  considered  whether  the  saving  to 
the  animals  will  nob  justify  the  additional  expense. 

The  trough  should  be  located  on  ground  with  sufiicient  drainage 
to  carry  off  the  waste  and  surface  water  and  sufficiently  below  the 
outlet  of  the  spring  to  insure  a faU  which  will  enable  the  water  to 
sweep  before  it  any  moderate  amount  of  foreign  matter  that  may  find 
its  way  into  the  pipe.  It  is  a mistake  to  use  pipes  with  a diameter  less 
than  1 inch,  though  the  more  nearly  the  flow  fills  the  pipe  the  better 
it  will  be.  The  matter  of  laying  the  pipe  under  or  above  ground  is 
one  to  be  settled  by  local  conditions.  If  there  is  no  road  or  trail  to  be 
crossed,  and  if  the  elevation  between  the  trough  and  the  spring  does 
not  caU  for  lowering  the  pipe  at  any  point,  it  will  probably  not  be 
necessary  to  bury  the  pipe  or  otherwise  cover  it,  provided  the  water 
comes  directly  from  the  spring  at  the  usual  temperature.  If  the  pipe 
is  likely  to  be  disturbed  in  any  way,  however,  it  is  better  to  place  it 
a few  inches  below  the  surface.  Usually  in  joining  the  pipes  together 
it  is  better  to  have  unions’^  at  regular  intervals  for  convenience  in 
examining  the  pipes  for  possible  obstructions.  A long  telegraph  w ire 
of  about  No.  8 size,  with  a sharp  barbed  point  on  the  end,  will  furnish 
the  most  convenient  means  of  cleaning  out  a pipe,  up  which  it  can  be 
pushed  for  50  or  75  feet. 

Fencing  a s'pring. — It  is  always  advisable  to  protect  a spring  by  a 
stout  fence  of  poles,  logs,  or  wdre,  whichever  is  cheapest.  This  pre- 
vents the  stock  from  watering  at  the  spring  itself,  falling  into  it,  or 
breaking  down  the  walls  and  affecting  the  flow.  If  wire  is  used  it 
should  be  well  stretched  and  the  comer  posts  firmly  braced.  Excel- 
lent protection  for  a spring  is  a small  log  crib  built  up  about  it  to  a 
moderate  height.  If  the  logs  are  peeled  and  placed  on  good  founda- 
tion stones  at  the  corners,  such  a crib  will  last  many  years. 

Fish  in  springs. — It  is  quite  commonly  believed  that  the  presence 
of  fish  tends  almost  wholly  to  eliminate  the  growth  of  vegetable 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN,  592. 

matter  in  the  pipe  leading  to  the  troughs,  which  interferes  with  the 
flow  of  most  springs.  In  Arizona,  8 or  10  trout  were  placed  in  a 
large  spring  which  had  been  cleaned  out  and  cemented  up.  They 
lived  there  for  over  10  years,  during  which  time  the  spring  was 
exceptionally  free  from  all  vegetable  growth,  though  another  spring 
near  by,  which  contained  no  fish,  was  continually  full  of  such  growth, 
making  it  necessary  to  clean  out  the  pipes  at  frequent  intervals. 
Both  springs  were  practically  alike  as  far  as  the  nature  of  the  water 
and  surroundmg  conditions  were  concerned. 

SEEPS. 

Seeps  may  be  improved  in  much  the  same  manner  as  springs. 
Since  their  flow,  however,  is  much  smaller  than  that  of  the  average 
spring,  it  is  generally  necessary  to  dig  them  out  enough  to  secure 
every  drop  of  water  they  are  capable  of  yielding.  This  may  be  done 
through  open  cuts  running  across  the  wet  spot  where  it  is  in  an  open 
place,  or  by  ‘^drifting’’  into  the  side  of  a hill  where  the  water  shows 
its  presence.  Often  a mere  drip  of  water  from  some  seam  in  a ledge 
can  be  developed  into  a much  larger  supply  by  merely  drilhng  a hole 
6 or  8 feet  into  the  rock  close  to  the  ^^seepy”  place  and  springing’’ 
it  with  a charge  of  black  powder.  Seep  development  is  a good  deal  of 
a gamble,  and  if  the  work  bids  fair  to  be  expensive  it  must  be  justified 
by  the  necessity  for  more  water  on  the  range. 

There  is  usually  greater  necessity  for  storing  the  flow  of  a seep  than 
of  a spring,  since  in  the  case  of  the  former  advantage  must  be  taken 
of  the  flow  both  day  and  night  if  sufficient  water  is  to  be  secured  for 
the  stock.  A stream  from  a seep  not  larger  than  a lead  pencil  wiU, 
if  properly  saved  and  reservoired,  furnish  water  for  a very  consid- 
erable number  of  stock.  In  estimating  the  probable  size  of  a storage 
tank  or  reservoir,  the  flow  of  the  seep  may  be  ascertained  by  the 
methods  described  on  page  6. 

SWAMPS. 

Swampy  spots,  lying  somewhat  lower  than  the  surrounding  country, 
can  often  be  made  to  furnish  a water  supply  sufficient  for  a number 
of  stock.  Thus,  on  the  Fremont  Forest  in  Oregon,  a spring  in  the 
middle  of  a swamp  was  cleaned  out  and  an  open  channel  cut  across 
the  swamp  far  enough  to  allow  the  flow  to  run  down  the  draw  below 
into  a series  of  large  open  pools.  This  channel  collected  the  surface 
and  spring  water,  which  before  had  been  of  little  use,  and  supplied 
it  to  a band  of  sheep.  By  cross  cutting  such  spots  and  accumulating 
the  water  at  a central  pool,  from  which  it  can  be  carried  to  some 
reservoir  or  catchment  basin  through  open  ditches,  the  supply  will  be 
increased  considerably.  Water  development  in  swamps  not  only 
increases  the  supply,  but  often  removes  a dangerous  and  annoying 
bog  hole. 


STOCK-WATERING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS. 


9 


TRAILS  TO  INACCESSIBLE  WATERS. 

Western  streams  often  flow  for  many  miles  through  deep  canyons, 
while  near  by  are  excellent  stock  ranges  unused  because  of  lack  of 
water.  Such  streams  may  frequently  be  brought  into  use  by  the 
construction  of  trails,  by  means  of  which  the  stock  may  reach  them, 
or  by  lifting  their  waters  to  the  surface.  On  a National  Forest  in 
northeastern  Arizona  stockmen  have  built  many  first-class  trails 
down  the  side  of  a canyon  whose  walls  are  almost  perpendicular.  The 
most  successful  of  these  trails  are  built  with  widie  and  comparatively 
level  landings  at  the  turns  or  switchbacks,  so  that  the  stock  can 
conveniently  pass  each  other  or  even  rest  there  if  they  feel  inclined. 
Many  of  the  trails  are  blasted  from  the  solid  rock  with  outside  walls 
built  up  by  means  of  a retaining  log  held  in  place  by  steel  rods  set  in 
drill  holes  in  the  rock  and  secured  by  cement  or  some  similar  material. 
To  prevent  the  washing  of  the  soil  put  on  the  rocks  to  furnish  a footing 
for  the  stock,  logs  are  placed  across  the  trail  at  intervals,  making  it 
possible  to  level  up  the  spaces  between  them  and  so  form  a series  of 
easy  steps.  Where  overhanging  or  jutting  rocks  endanger  pack 
animals  or  riders,  they  are  blasted  away.  On  one  Forest  in  Arizona 
several  sheep  trails  have  been  in  use  for  many  years  in  a canyon  whose 
walls  are  between  500  and  600  feet  high.  Bands  of  ewes  and  lambs, 
numbering  as  many  as  1,500  head  of  old  stock,  have  passed  up  and 
down  them  for  long  periods  with  no  loss  except  an  occasional  animal 
stampeded  through  some  cause  or  other. 

In  using  trails  of  this  kind,  the  stock,  especially  sheep  and  cattle, 
should  never  be  crowded.  Animals  like  to  take  their  time  going  down 
such  places,  and  if  crowded  they  will  bunch  up  on  the  most  dangerous 
points,  wliich  may  result  in  injury  and  possibly  death  to  some  of  them. 

Some  of  the  means  of  raising  water  to  the  surface  of  a canyon  by 
machinery  are  described  on  pages  7 and  8. 

ARTIFICIAL  WATERING  PLACES. 

One  of  the  very  first  methods  of  adding  to  or  improving  the  water 
supply  was  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the  many  prairie  lakes  and 
reservoirs  scattered  about  on  the  ranges.  This  generally  took  the 
form  of  providing  a more  ready  way  for  water  to  reach  the  lake, 
which  was  done  by  plowing  furrows  diagonally  across  the  slopes  lead- 
ing down  to  it  and  so  guiding  the  flood  waters  directly  to  a central 
point.  In  this  way  the  precipitation  from  many  small  storms,  which 
otherwise  would  not  have  reached  the  lake,  was  gathered  up  and  stored 
for  use.  Again  it  was  found  possible  by  building  small  diversion  dams 
to  bring  to  the  natural  lakes  or  reservoirs  the  flow  from  distant  ^ ^washes’  ’ 
or  dry  ‘‘  arroyos  ” during  the  rainy  season  or  while  the  snow  was  melt- 
ing. Such  ditches  often  carried  the  water  for  many  miles  around  hill- 
sides, and  in  some  cases  high  flumes  were  built  across  deep  valleys. 

42498°— Bull.  592—14 2 


10 


FAKMERS'  BULLETIN^  592. 


Later,  when  the  demands  upon  the  range  became  greater,  the 
natural  reservoirs  were  supplemented  by  artificial  ones.  Experience 
soon  brought  out  the  .fact  that  the  mere  damming  up  of  a stream 
would  seldom  serve  the  purpose,  since  the  silt  and  debris  quickly 
filled  up  the  reservoir  behind  the  dam,  turning  it  into  merely  a dan- 
gerous bog  hole  where  weak  cattle  found  their  final  resting  place. 
But  by  locating  the  reservoir  in  some  adobe  flat  and  leading  the 
water  to  it  through  a ditch,  very  satisfactory  results  were  obtained. 
Thus  to-day  one  of  the  most  important  means  of  adding  to  the  supply 
of  water  on  certain  forest  ranges  is  through  flood-water  reservoirs. 

RESERVOIRS. 

Wliere  a natural  water  supply  is  more  than  1 mile  distant,  there 
seems  to  be  no  reason  why  small  reservoirs  can  not  be  built  upon 
almost  every  section  in  the  open  park-like  places  found  on  most 
F orests.  Such  reservoirs,  which  are  usually  auxihary  or  supplemental 
to  the  natural  water  supply,  need  not  cost  much  to  build  or  main- 
tain. If  a low  place  is  selected  in  the  middle  of  some  open  park  with 
sloping  hills  about  it,  comparatively  little  work  with  plow  and  scraper 
will  construct  a reservoir  which,  when  trampled  and  puddled  by  use, 
will  hold  water  sufficient  for  many  head  of  stock  for  some  time. 
Furrows  running  diagonally  across  the  slopes  will  collect  the  rainfall 
or  melting  snow  waters  and  carry  them  directly  to  the  reservoir  for 
storage.  Artificial  reservoirs  permit  the  stock  to  be  scattered  out 
over  a larger  area  than  ordinarily  and  remove  the  need  for  them  to 
concentrate  at  permanent  watering  places.  It  is  remarkable  how 
quickly  stock,  especially  cattle,  will  find  these  new  supphes  of  water 
and  utilize  them.  Even  though  such  a supply  does  not  last  for  more 
than  a few  weeks,  or  even  days,  it  will  in  a very  short  time  well  repay 
the  cost  of  obtaining  it. 

Two  methods  are  followed  in  constructing  dirt  reservoirs.  The 
first  is  to  dig  out  the  ground  in  some  open  adobe  flat  and  build  up  the 
walls  with  the  earth  taken  from  the  excavation.  The  second  is  to 
select  some  dry  wash  or  canyon  where  it  narrows  down  to  a reasonable 
width  and  inclose  it  with  a dam  of  earth.  The  last  method  insures 
the  greater  storage  capacity  and  is  the  one  most  commonly  used  in 
the  West.  Its  drawbacks  are  (1)  the  dangers  from  unusual  floods, 
which  may  sweep  down  the  wash  and  in  a few  minutes  overwhelm 
the  waste  gate  or  spillway  and  tear  a hole  through  the  dam;  and  (2) 
the  practical  certainty  that  silt  will  find  its  way  into  the  reservoir  and 
gradually  fill  it  up.  With  regard  to  this  last  objection,  however,  the 
silting-up  process  may  be  made  less  rapid  by  constructing  a small 
^^setthng’’  basin  with  ^dashboards’'  a short  distance  above  the 
reservoir  itself. 


STOCK- WATEEING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING  I.ANDS.  11 

Before  work  begins  on  any  tyi)0  of  reservoir  three  matters  should 
be  settled  which  have  an  important  bearing  u})on  the  choice  of  a site. 
These  are  (1)  the  gallon  capacity  of  the  reservoir,  (2)  the  amount  of 
water  the  animals  will  require  each  day,  and  (3)  the  natural  loss  from 
evaporation  and  filtration.  Knowing  the  dimensions  in  feet  of  the 
proposed  reservoir,  and  estimating  that  each  cubic  foot  of  water  con- 
tains gallons,  the  gallon  capacity  can  easily  enough  be  figured  out. 
Data  on  the  daily  water  consumption  of  the  various  classes  of  live 
stock  are  given  on  page  2 and  on  evaporation  and  filtration  losses 
on  page  15. 

Soil  requirements. — A heavy  adobe  or  clay  soil  is  one  of  the  first 
requisites  for  a reservoir  site.  If  this  is  found,  the  question  of  leakage 


Fig.  2.— An  earth  reservoir  for  impounding  flood  waters  used  for  sheep-watering  purposes,  Coconino 

National  Forest,  Ariz. 

is  not  serious  after  the  first  filling.  The  passing  back  and  forth  over 
the  work  by  the  horses  as  the  reservoir  is  being  built  does  much  to 
settle  the  banks,  though  generally  additional  means  must  be  em- 
ployed. The  usual  plan  is  to  place  salt  on  the  banks  and  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  reservoir.  This  attracts  the  stock,  which  soon  trample 
down  the  material  used  until  it  is  almost  impervious  to  water.  Good 
results  have  also  been  obtained  by  taking  a band  of  range  or  other 
horses,  and,  with  a foot  or  two  of  water  in  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir, 
running  them  about  in  it  for  an  hour  or  so.  Several  hundred  head 
of  range  cattle  held  in  the  tank  for  a few  hours  will  give  the  same 
results.  Sheep  may  be  used,  but  the  process  is  a hard  one  on  both 
animals  and  wool. 


12 


FAKMEKS^  BULLETIN^  592. 


Where  the  soil  lacks  in  clay  or  adobo  quahties,  excellent  results 
have  been  secured  by  hauling  clay  from  some  near-by  place  and  scat- 
tering it  over  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  reservoir.  By  the  means 
just  described  this  can  be  worked  into  the  soil  so  thoroughly  as  to 
make  the  tank  water-tight. 

Several  experiments  to  stop  reservoirs  from  leaking  by  running  a 
trench  3 to  5 feet  wide  on  the  lower  side  of  the  embankment  and  down 
to  bedrock,  filling  it  in  with  clay,  have  not  given  very  satisfactory 
results.  In  every  case  the  leakage  continued,  probably  because  it 
was  through  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir  and  not  tlrrough  the  bank. 
In  most  cases,  placing  from  2 to  4 inches  of  good  stiff  clay  on  the  bot- 
tom, and  seeing  that  it  was  well  puddled,  stopped  the  leak. 

Testing  the  ground. — Before  finally  deciding  upon  the  location  of  a 
reservoir,  soundings  should  be  taken  of  the  area  upon  which  tlie  water 
and  bank’ will  rest,  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  underlying  strata. 
This  is  easily  done  with  a common  fence-post  auger  or  a well-digger’s 
auger.  If  the  soil  is  shallow  it  may  not  be  possible  to  obtain  the 
needed  material  for  the  banks  without  endangering  the  bottom  of  the 
reservoir,  and  in  such  cases  the  soundings  should  be  continued  until  a 
spot  is  found  where  plenty  of  soil  can  be  obtained  for  the  banks  with- 
out going  too  close  to  bedrock.  If  loose  rock  or  gravel  is  discovered 
close  to  the  surface  it  v/ill  be  well  not  to  take  any  soil  from  the  bottom 
of  the  proposed  reservoir,  lest  it  result  in  leakage,  and  it  may  even  be 
advisable  to  select  another  site. 

Building  the  embankment. — In  building  the  embankment  of  a dirt 
reservoir  the  first  step  is  to  run  an  open  ditch  for  its  entire  length  in 
the  center  of  the  base  on  which  the  embankment  wiU  rest.  Tliis 
ditch,  wliich  should  usually  not  be  less  than  2 feet  wide  and  3 feet 
deep  (wider  if  the  base  width  of  the  dam  is  greater  than  the  average, 
but  of  course  not  as  deep  if  bedrock  is  close),  is  meant  to  be  fiUed  up 
with  dirt  taken  from  the  excavation.  In  this  way  the  embankment  is 
keyed  into  the  ground,  and  neither  slides  nor  water  can  find  their  way 
between  the  new  work  and  the  more  solid  ground  on  which  it  rests. 

Soil  for  the  embankment  should  be  dug  from  the  site  of  the  pro- 
posed reservoir  in  a long,  narrow  pit.  Tliis  increases  the  capacity  of 
the  reservoir  just  so  much,  and  will  furnish  a depression  in  which  the 
water  will  gather  as  the  amount  shrinks,  thus  permitting  the  stock  to 
obtain  practically  every  gallon  there  is  in  the  tank.  It  tends,  too,  to 
reduce  the  lose  from  evaporation,  since  the  water,  as  it  lowers,  is  con- 
centrated in  a single  deep  hole  instead  of  being  scattered  over  the 
entire  floor  of  the  reservoir  in  a shallow  sheet. 

Embankments  are  often  built  with  a core  of  logs  and  brush,  over 
which  the  earth  is  dumped.  Sooner  or  later,  however,  the  logs  and 
brush  must  decay,  bringing  about  a depression  in  the  embankment 


STOCK-WATERING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS.  13 

and  a general  loosening  up  of  tlie  eartli  sure  to  result  in  leaks  and 
possibly  serious  damage  to  tlie  whole  structure. 

No  embankment  should  be  considered  finislied  until  its  upper  face, 
from  the  bottom  level  to  the  crest,  is  riprap])ed  with  rock  large 
enougli  to  insure  its  remaining  in  ])lace  under  trying  conditions.  If 
the  riprap  work  can  be  carried  up  as  the  embankment  is  built,  keep- 
ing a little  ahead  of  the  earth,  it  will  do  much  to  prevent  the  borrow 
pit  from  filling  up  with  waste  dirt  from  the  face  of  tlie  bank. 

One  of  tlie  best  means  of  protecting  tlie  bank  against  erosion  by 
waves  due  to  high  winds  is  to  run  a double  boom  of  logs  clear  across 
the  face  of  the  dam  just  at  the  water  line.  The  logs  should  be  fas- 
tened together  in  pairs  by  heavy  wire,  and  each  end  of  the  boom 
chained  to  a stout  post  placed  in  the  earth  at  the  end  of  the  embank- 
ment. The  boom  then  lies  upon  the  rijirap  work  just  at  the  water 
line,  and  floats  freely,  acting  as  a break  against  which  the  waves  lose 
their  force. 

Covering  the  face  of  the  embankment  with  brush  held  in  place  by 
stakes  is  a cheap  though  temporary  means  of  protection.  If  it  were 
not  for  the  likelihood  of  its  being  displaced  by  stock  running  over  it, 
or  destroyed  by  fire,  it  might  be  relied  upon  for  permanent  use. 

Spillways.— 1^0  matter  how  well  built  a dam  may  be,  if  sufficient 
allowance  is  not  made  for  carrying  off  any  excess  of  water,  a part  or 
perhaps  all  of  the  embankment  is  certain  to  be  swept  away.  The 
large  majority  of  dam  and  reservoir  failures  may  be  attributed  to  some 
defect  in  the  spillway.  The  most  common  is  that  the  spillway  is  too 
small  for  the  body  of  water  which  may  sometimes  come  sweeping 
down  the  canyon  or  valley  into  the  reservoir,  with  a head  of  perhaps 
4 or  5 feet.  The  reservoir  fills  to  the  brim,  a tiny  rivulet  cuts  its  way 
across  the  top  of  the  dirt  fill,  and  in  a few  minutes  there  is  a wide  gap 
in  the  embankment  througli  which  probably  every  drop  of  water  in 
the  reservoir  runs  out.  In  such  cases  repairs  may  cost  almost  as 
much  as  the  original  work,  while  in  the  drier  regions  it  may  be  a year 
or  two  before  another  flood  occurs  of  sufficient  size  to  fdl  the  reservoir 
again. 

Another  instance  in  which  spillways  fail  is  when,  through  faulty 
construction,  the  water  finds  its  way  beneath  the  spillway  floor,  or, 
if  it  has  no  floor,  tears  away  the  riprap  work  which  lines  it,  and  cuts 
into  the  embankment  until  the  reservoir  is  ruined. 

A third  danger  lies  in  locating  the  spiilway  at  too  high  a level. 
In  such  cases  the  water,  before  being  able  to  run  out,  may  rise  so 
close  to  the  top  of  the  embankment  that  on  a windy  day  waves  may 
be  whipped  across  the  crest  of  the  dam,  on  which  there  may  be  a low 
spot  through  which  the  water  readily  finds  passage.  Experience  has 
shown  that  the  water  should  never  be  allowed  to  rise  closer  than 


14  FARMERS^  BULLETIN,  592. 

2 feet  of  the  top  of  the  embankment  before  it  begins  to  run  out  of 
the  spillway. 

Having  figured  out  as  closely  as  possible  the  spillway  room  neces- 
sary to  carry  off  the  surplus  water  from  the  reservoir,  it  is  far  better 
to  err  on  the  safe  side  and  perhaps  double  the  figures  than  to  build 
on  too  small  a scale  and  some  day  see  the  entire  work  torn  out  as  a 
result  of  some  cloudburst. 

Care  must  be  taken  so  to  divert  the  waste  water  as  it  comes  from 
the  spillway  that  its  eddying  force  does  not  cut  into  the  toe  of  the 
embankment  and  undermine  it.  This  can  usually  be  done  by  placing 
plenty  of  riprap  work  or  loose  rock  along  the  sides  of  the  embank- 
ment below  the  spillway. 

The  ideal  wasteway  is  one  so  located  that  when  the  water  in  the 
reservoir  has  reached  its  proper  level  the  supply  will  overflow  either 
at  some  point  before  it  enters  the  reservoir  or  at  the  extreme  rear 
of  the  latter,  where  it  can  be  led  over  some  rocky  ledge  or  low  place 
in  the  surrounding  ridge.  If  the  reservoir  is  filled  from  a ditch  a 
waste  gate  at  the  proper  level  in  the  ditch  bank  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose. Should  this  be  undermined  by  the  water  no  great  harm  will 
be  done,  for  the  cut  made  in  the  bank  could  drain  off  but  a small 
amount  of  water  from  the  reservoir  proper. 

Fencing, — As  a general  thing  a reservoir  embankment  is  saved  a 
great  deal  of  wear  and  tear  by  fencing  it  in.  If  stock  are  allowed 
to  run  over  it  as  they  please,  trails  will  be  worn  here  and  there,  which 
may  offer  fine  opportunities  for  some  accidental  overflow.  Tram- 
pling by  stock  also  cuts  down  the  banks  to  a considerable  extent  and 
narrows  the  width  of  the  top  of  the  fill  so  that  much  of  its  strength 
is  lost.  The  usual  plan  is  to  run  a wire  fence  clear  around  the  dam 
or  embankment,  both  inside  and  out,  so  that  stock  can  not  get  on 
it  at  all.  Where  the  bank  is  riprapped  the  fence  need  only  come 
down  to  the  top  of  the  riprap  work. 

Usually  stock  are  allowed  to  enter  a reservoir  to  drink,  but  where, 
as  sometimes  happens,  the  water  is  also  needed  for  domestic  purposes 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  them  out.  In  such  cases  a string  of  troughs 
is  constructed  below  the  reservoir  to  which  the  water  is  drawn 
through  a pipe  controlled  by  a float  valve,  thus  keeping  the  troughs 
full  at  all  times. 

Cost. — The  cost  of  building  a reservoir  of  the  character  described 
is  not  excessive.  The  material  need  usually  be  moved  only  a short 
distance,  and  a considerable  amount  can  be  piled  up  in  a day  with 
the  ordinary  ^^slip’^  scraper.  As  the  bank  rises,  either  a wheel 
scraper  or  the  type  known  as  the  fresno  should  be  employed.  Such 
work,  under  contract,  should  not  cost  over  20  cents  per  cubic  yard, 
and  if  the  amount  to  be  done  is  large  and  the  earth  close  at  hand 
it  should  cost  even  less.  Figuring  the  cost  of  a team  and  driver 


STOCK-WATERING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS.  15 

at  $3.50  per  day  of  10  hours,  and  other  labor  at  $1  per  day,  the 
following  will  he  the  approximate  cost  of  moving  earth  for  an  ordi- 
nary reservoir  embankment: 


Amount  of  earth  moved  per  day. 


Haulage. 

With  slip 
scraper  holding 

I cubic  yard. 

Cost. 

With  wheel 
scraper  holding 

1 cubic  yard 

Cost. 

Feet. 

Cubic  yards. 

Cents. 

Cubic  yards. 

Cents. 

50 

60 

9.0-11.0 

100 

6. 6-  9. 1 

100 

45 

10. 9-13.4 

90 

7.0-  9.5 

200 

30 

14.  9-17.4 

60 

9.1-11.6 

The  cost  depends  largely  upoji  the  nature  of  the  soil,  heavy  soil 
requiring  more  plowing  and  loosening  up  to  facilitate  loading  it  on 
the  scraper. 

The  average  actual  cost  of  8 reservoirs  on  the  Lincoln  National 
Forest,  wdth  an  average  capacity  of  1,250,000  gallons,  was  $506;  of 
6 reservoirs  on  the  Prescott  National  Forest,  with  an  average  capacity 
of  216,000  gallons,  $183;  of  5 reservoirs  on  the  Prescott  National 
Forest,  with  an  average  capacity  of  300,000  gallons,  $340;  and  of  7 
reservoirs  on  the  Tusayan  National  Forest,  with  an  average  capacity 
of  473,000  gallons,  $247. 

Loss  hy  evaporation  and  filtration. — When  a reservoir  is  fairly  well 
settled  and  the  leakage  is  reduced  to  a minimum,  the  daily  loss  of 
water  through  evaporation  and  filtration,  or  soaking  into  the  earth, 
will  not  exceed  from  a half  to  1 inch.  In  new  reservoirs,  however, 
it  will  be  considerably  greater.^  The  loss  by  evaporation  is  greatest 
during  the  three  summer  months,  but  takes  place  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year.  At  the  Roosevelt  Dam  in  southern  Arizona  the  actual  loss  of 
water  by  evaporation  approximated  6 feet  per  year.  With  the 
average  stock-watering  reservoir  in  the  W^est,  where  evaporation  is 
at  the  maximum,  probably  as  much  water  is  lost  through  evaporation 
and  leakage  as  is  taken  from  the  reservoirs  by  the  animals  them- 
selves. With  the  figures  given,  however,  and  a knowledge  of  the 
number  of  stock  that  will  water  at  the  reservoir  it  should  be  possible 
to  determine  pretty  accurately  the  demands  that  a reservoir  wiU  be 
called  upon  to  meet. 

WELLS. 

In  comparatively  few  places  throughout  the  West  can  well  water 
be  obtained  at  moderate  depths.  The  cost  of  drilling  a well  with 
modern  machinery,  however,  is  not  great,  and  where  water  is  more 
than  50  feet  below  the  surface  the  best  way  to  reach  it  is  by  drilling 
or  boring.  Up  to  a depth  of  500  feet  the  average  cost  of  a well 
where  work  is  done  under  contract  is  approximately  $1  per  running 


Civil  Engineers’  Uandbook,  Trautwine. 


16 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN,  592. 


foot.  This  does  not  include  casing,  which  wall  cost  $1  per  running 
foot  if  of  steel  or  heavy  iron,  and  25  cents  if  of  galvanized  iron, 
making  the  total  cost  per  foot  between  $1.25  and  $2.  Where  the 
hole  is  in  rock,  casing  may  not  be  necessary. 

In  many  parts  of  the  West  the  charge  for  digging  o})en  wells  down 
to  50  feet  is  about  $2  per  foot,  which  includes  sawing  and  setting  the 
curbing  in  place,  if  lumber  is  used,  but  not  the  cost  of  the  material. 
Lumber  should  never  be  used  for  curbing,  because  of  its  rapid  decay. 
Here  again,  as  in  the  case  of  springs,  cement  blocks  are  the  best 
for  the  purpose.  Wliether  these  or  ordinary  rough  stones  are  used, 
the  same  system  of  preventing  dangerous  slides  can  be  employed 
as  is  recommended  for  springs;  namely,  to  build  the  walls  upon  a 


Fig.  3. — An  unusually  well-equipped  watering  plant  in  Arizona.  Troughs  are  of  heavy  steel  and  roof 
protects  water  from  sim.  W ater  is  raised  from  well  several  hundred  feet  deep  by  steam  pump.  Coconino 
National  Forest. 


heavy  plank  foundation  from  the  top  and  allows  it  to  sink  as  the 
work  progresses.  If  properly  laid,  the  w^alls  will  be  perfectly  safe 
against  caving,  moving  sand  wdU  be  effectively  shut  out,  and  the  wall 
can  be  carried  down  to  almost  any  depth.  An  open  w^ell  has  this 
objection,  however,  that  unless  the  curbing  is  carefully  laid  and  the 
top  securely  closed  small  animals  get  into  the  water  and  render  it 
unfit  for  use  for  anything  else  than  stock.  The  curbing  should  be 
carried  up  at  least  2 feet  above  the  ground,  and  the  lid  should  never 
be  left  off.  Where  the  water  supply  is  rather  limited  an  open  well 
has  the  advantage  that  after  reaching  bedrock  a ^‘sump”  or  chamber 
can  be  excavated  in  which  water  can  accumulate  wiien  the  mill  or 
pump  is  not  working,  thus  consideralily  increasing  the  capacity  of 
the  well. 


STOCK- WATEEING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS.  17 


Dee'p  wells  and  windmills. — Throughout  the  Texas  Panliandle  region 
the  watering  of  stock  from  deep  wells  has  been  worked  out  almost  to 
an  exact  science.  Water  is  found  in  practically  unlimited  quantities 
at  depths  of  from  150  to  300  feet,  though  there  is  little  on  the  surface. 
Wlien  the  entire  region  was  one  great  cattle  range  it  was  considered 
most  satisfactory  to  have  a well  at  the  intersection  of  every*  four 
sections,  in  order  that  stock  would  not  have  to  travel  over  2 miles 
in  any  direction  to  reach  water.  Finished  wells  such  as  those  in 
Texas  cost  from  $350  to  $500  and  upward,  according  to  depth.  A 
steel  or  wooden  windmill  complete,  with  pipe,  cylinder,  etc.,  and 
ready  for  use,  costs  from  $150  to  $300.  Wooden  towers  cost  from 
$30  to  $60.  The  average  Texas  well  complete,  with  mill,  tower, 
troughs,  etc.,  represents  an  investment  of  about  $1,000.  Under 
ordinary  weather  conditions  such  a well,  in  connection  with  a suit- 
able reservoir  for  storing  the  water  against  a calm  season,  can  easily 
supply  between  350  and  500  cattle  each  day. 

When  such  an  outfit  is  well  taken  care  of,  repairs  are  not  heavy. 
If  the  cylinder  is  placed  below  the  surface  of  the  water  (as  it  should 
be)  the  valves  need  not  be  renewed  more  than  once  every  6 months 
unless  an  unusual  amount  of  sand  is  raised.  It  is  a very  severe 
storm  that  does  a windmill  any  damage,  provided  the  weights  are 
properly  adjusted  so  as  to  meet  sudden  squalls.  The  life  of  a good 
windmill  is  reasonably  long  when  it  is  given  the  proper  care.  The 
adherence  to  a few  simple  rules  will  often  go  a long  way  toward  pro- 
longing the  life  of  a mill  and  avoiding  costly  breakdowns.  When 
a mill  is  first  assembled,  and  before  it  is  put  to  use,  every  nut  on  it 
from  one  end  to  the  other  should  be  tightened  with  a wrench.  After 
that,  every  bolt  head  should  be  riveted  with  a rivetting  hammer, 
so  that  the  nut  will  not  work  off  under  any  circumstances.  It  is 
far  cheaper  in  the  end  to  cut  off  a bolt  with  a cold  chisel  and  replace 
it  with  a new  one,  if  such  a thing  seems  necessary,  than  to  neglect  to 
do  so,  for  nine-tenths  of  the  breakdowns  that  occur  when  windmills 
are  left  to  themselves  are  due  to  the  nuts  dropping  off.  At  regular 
intervals,  at  least  once  each  week,  a windmill  should  be  gone  over 
carefully  to  see  that  every  bolt  and  nut  is  tight.  Parts  which  need 
it  should  be  oiled.  Windmills  looked  after  in  this  way  will  seldom 
need  expensive  repairs. 

Windmills  are  also  used  for  raising  water  from  deep  canyons  in 
which  there  are  streams  or  springs.  In  some  cases  the  mill  is  set 
back  from  the  edge  of  the  canyon  and  the  power  carried  to  the  pump- 
rod  by  a ‘Uriangle.  Several  such  plants  are  in  operation  in  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico,  raising  the  water  from  canyons  from  100  to  300 
feet  deep  with  entire  success.  Any  other  pumping  power,  of  course, 
can  be  used  in  the  same  way. 


18 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN,  592. 

Other  means  of  raising  water. — While  the  windmill  is  the  main 
dependence  of  stockmen  for  raising  water,  improvements  in  gasoline 
and  oil  engines  have  brought  them  into  wide  use,  especially  as  aux- 
iliary to  the  wind  engine.  No  matter  how  great  the  reservoir  capacity, 
long  periods  of  calm  are  likely  to  occur  during  which  the  storage  sup- 
ply of  water  is  exhausted.  To  meet  such  emergencies,  gas  engines 
mounted  on  wheels  or  wagons,  so  that  they  can  be  moved  from  one 
well  to  another,  have  been  used  with  great  success.  The  cost  of  a 
2-horsepower  gasoline  engine  is  about  $125  and  a 3-horsepower  $175 
and  up.  Actual  horsepower  is  also  used  for  pumping  purposes  where 
the  well  is  close  to  a camp  or  ranch.  With  either  a sweep  attach- 
ment or  an  ordinary  treadmill,  horses  or  burros  useless  for  ordinary 
work  can  be  utilized. 

RESERVOIRS  FOR  PUMPING  PLANTS. 

No  well  is  complete  without  a reservoir  with  a capacity  large 
enough  to  carry  the  stock  dependent  upon  it  over  a long  calm  spell. 
In  the  Panhandle  country  the  common  type  of  dirt  reservoir  is  the 
one  most  used. 

If  possible  the  well  should  be  located  at  a spot  somewhat  higher 
than  the  reservoir  in  order  to  give  the  water  the  necessary  fall.  Ex- 
cavations for  watering  from  300  to  500  cattle  are  usually  about  50 
feet  wide,  100  feet  long,  and  about  3 feet  deep.  The  walls  can  be 
built  up  with  the  dirt  from  the  excavation,  so  as  to  give  the  entire 
reservoir  an  average  depth  of  about  5 feet.  Such  a reservoir  will  hold 
approximately  200,000  gallons  of  water,  enough  to  supply  the  number 
of  cattle  mentioned  for  several  days,  with  due  allowance  for  leakage 
and  evaporation. 

The  cost  of  a reservoir  of  the  dimensions  given  should  not  exceed 
$100,  with  ordinary  wages  for  men  and  teams.  Wlien  the  work  can 
be  done  by  the  stockman’s  employees  and  teams  in  the  course  of  their 
ordinary  work,  the  expense  will  be  even  less.  The  long,  narrow 
type  of  excavation  gives  the  minimum  of  haulage  for  the  dirt,  and 
the  teams  can  be  worked  back  and  forth  across  the  hole,  thus  avoid- 
ing loss  of  time  in  loading.  Where  there  are  no  rocks  to  handle, 
two  teams  and  several  slip  scrapers,  or  fresno  scrapers,  can  get  the 
earth  out  of  the  hole  and  into  the  banks  very  quickly 

Wlien  the  soil  is  of  such  a kind  that  it  will  not  hold  water  readily, 
reservoirs  are  often  lined  with  coatings  of  heavy  crude  oil  or  coal  tar 
to  make  them  water-tight.  The  entire  surface  of  the  tank  is  first 
rolled  until  it  is  fairly  firm  and  solid,  and  is  then  gone  over  with  a 
rake  until  the  soil  is  loosened  up  to  a depth  of  about  an  inch.  The 
coating  material,  not  boiling  hot  but  warmed  sufficiently  to  make  it 
flow  readily,  is  then  spread  by  means  of  an  ordinary  broom  or  sprink- 


STOCK-WATERING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS.  19 

ling  pot  until  every  part  of  the  surface  is  covered.  To  cover  a 
reservoir  50  feet  wide,  100  feet  long,  and  4 feet  deep,  requires  approx- 
imately 8 barrels  of  tar.  If  placed  on  the  soil  at  boiling  temperature 
the  tar  covering  is  likely  to  crack  in  cold  weather.  Stock  should  not 
be  allowed  to  enter  the  reservoir  after  it  is  lined,  because  they  are 
likely  to  cut  the  bottom  with  their  feet.  The  cost  is  not  heavy, 
and  where  clay  can  not  be  obtained  and  the  slope  is  enough  to  per- 
mit troughs  to  be  erected,  it  is  in  some  ways  the  most  satisfactory 
method  of  watering  stock  without  danger  of  the  water  becoming 
foul. 

Cement  reservoirs. — Wliere  windmills  are  used  for  stock  watering 
purposes  cement  reservoirs  to  hold  the  water  pumped  by  the  mills 
have  been  very  successful.  Their  usual  size  is  30  by  20  feet  and 
from  4 to  6 feet  high,  holding  approximately  20,000  gallons  of  water, 
and  watering  200  head  of  cattle  for  a period  of  from  8 to  10  days. 
The  walls  and  bottom  should  be  from  5 to  6 inches  thick  and  reinforced 
with  wires,  especially  about  the  corners.  Barbed  wire  is  excellent 
for  reinforcement.  Where  there  is  danger  of  the  water  'freezing 
soHd,  the  reservoir  should  be  built  with  a decided  slope  to  the  inner 
walls.  The  slope  can  be  obtained  by  making  the  walls  8 or  10  inches 
thick  at  the  bottom  and  gradually  narrowing  them  to  4 inches  at 
the  top.  This  will  resist  the  pressure  from  the  expanding  ice,  which 
otherwise  might  crack  the  walls. 

The  usual  1,  2,  3 mixture  is  probably  the  best  for  such  a reservoir, 
although  a mixture  of  1,  3,  5 has  sometimes  been  used  successfully. 
Tlie  somewhat  cheaper  cost  of  the  latter,  however,  scarcely  justifies 
the  possible  loss  in  efficiency  where  the  work  is  designed  to  be  per- 
manent. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  a reservoir  of  the  size  mentioned  can  be 
built  at  a cost  of  something  like  $100.  This  varies,  of  course,  with 
the  cost  of  materials  and  labor. 

Troughs  at  reservoirs. — The  use  of  troughs  at  reservoirs  avoids  to  a 
certain  extent  the  necessity  of  cutting  ice  in  the  winter,  since  the 
water  can  be  drawn  from  beneath  the  ice  in  the  reservoir,  provided 
the  troughs  and  float  valve  are  kept  open.  Where  stock  use  a 
reservoir  directly,  many  owners  prefer  to  have  a string  of  troughs 
between  each  of  the  wells,  the  overflow  from  the  last  trough  going 
into  the  reservoii\  In  winter,  stock  will  drink  the  comparatively 
warm  well  water  in  preference  to  that  from  the  reservoir  and  fare 
better  on  it.  Where  there  is  a string  of  five  or  six  10-foot  troughs, 
and  the  mill  makes  an  occasional  turn,  the  water  will  not  freeze  in 
the  first  two  or  three  troughs  unless  the  temperature  gets  very  low. 
Even  then  the  animals  can  easily  break  the  ice  with  then’  noses,  a 
thing  they  very  quickly  learn  to  do. 


20 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN^  592. 


STOCK  WATER  FROM  MINING  TUNNELS, 

On  several  National  Forests  use  has  been  made  of  tlie  waste  water 
from  mining  tunnels,  especially  those  abandoned  by  tlieir  owners. 
Few  tunnels  run  into  the  side  of  a mountain  without  striking  a flow 
of  water.  If  the  mine  is  not  being  actively  operated,  and  the  owners 
are  willing,  the  water  running  from  the  tunnel  may  be  piped  some 
distance  to  troughs,  or  a reservoir  may  be  built.  Frequently  the 
tunnel  itself  may  be  used  as  a reservoh*  by  closing  the  entrance  with 
cement  work  and  placing  an  outlet  pipe  some  distance  above  the 
floor.  By  the  use  of  a float  valve,  water  can  be  drawn  off  at  the 
troughs  as  needed.  If  the  winters  are  cold  enough  to  freeze  the 
water  and  burst  the  pipe,  it  should  be  buried  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground. 

TROUGHS, 

The  land  of  trough  or  other  receptacle  for  holding  water  derived 
from  wells  and  springs  will  depend  very  largely  upon  the  character 
of  the  surroundings.  Manifestly,  it  is  necessary  to  utilize  whatever 
material*  is  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  watering  place,  even 
though  it  may  not  work  for  either  permanence  or  appearance.  The 
feature  of  permanence  should  not  be  lost  sight  of,  however,  if  it 
can  be  obtained  without  too  great  a sacrifice  of  economy. 

Log  troughs. — Hewed  logs  are  and  probably  for  a long  time  wiU 
continue  to  be  by  far  the  most  common  material  for  the  construction 
of  troughs.  The  fact  that  the  trough  can  be  constructed  with  the 
tools  commonly  at  hand,  and  the  low  cost  for  renewals  and  repairs, 
are  points  which  make  for  their  use.  The  cost  of  a log  trough 
depends  to  a great  extent  upon  the  skill  and  energy  of  the  workmen. 
With  labor  at  S2.50  per  day,  the  cost  of  several  16-foot  troughs 
hewed  from  yellow  pine  on  an  Arizona  Forest  was  $7.50  each,  which 
is  rather  high  for  this  class  of  work.  On  an  Oregon  Forest  the  cost 
of  log  troughs  is  estimated  at  20  cents  per  cubic  foot  of  opening.  On 
a Nevada  Forest  the  cost  is  estimated  at  14  cents  per  cubic  foot  of 
opening.  On  the  Wallowa  National  Forest  in  Oregon  tlie  cost  was 
from  21  to  26  cents  per  cubic  foot  for  tamarack  and  35  cents  for 
yellow  pine.  Troughs  may  be  hewed  witli  an  ax  or  burned  out  with 
fire,  or  both,  as  seems  best.  Where  one  man  is  making  several 
troughs  time  may  be  saved  by  using  fire,  but  otherwise  it  is  likely 
to  effect  no  material  saving.  Yellow  pine  burns  more  readily  and 
hews  somewhat  harder  than  most  other  trees. 

Aspen,  yellow  pine,  spruce,  and  lodgepole  pine  are  all  used  for 
troughs.  In  two  cases,  one  in  Utah  and  the  other  in  Arizona,  a 
string  of  yellow  pine  troughs  is  still  in  use  after  nearly  30  years’ 
service. 

Plarik  troughs. — Next  to  the  log  trough,  the  plank  trough  is  the 
form  most  common  on  the  National  Forests.  A plank  trough  is 
much  shorter  lived  than  a log  trough  and  is  likely  to  leak  whenever 


STOCK-WATERING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS. 


21 


the  water  is  out  of  it  for  a few  days.  The  use  of  material  more  than 
2 inches  thick  does  not  add  much  to  its  hfe.  Painting  the  trough 
both  inside  and  outside  is  always  advisable.  Two  coats  of  lead  paint 
or  very  thin  pine  tar  not  only  preserves  the  wood  but  makes  the 
trough  less  likely  to  leak  after  being  left  without  water.  The  framing 
of  such  troughs  should  be  carefully  mortised  together  and  braced 
with  iron  rods  at  both  top  and  bottom.  Where  it  is  more  than  6 feet 
long  there  should  also  be  a brace  in  the  middle.  A string  of  plank 
sheep-watering  troughs  on  a National  Forest,  built  of  2-inch  plank, 
12  feet  long,  12  indies  deep,  and  12  inches  wide,  holding  about  90 
gallons  each,  cost  $4  per  trough.  On  another  Forest  the  average 
cost  of  plank  troughs,  built  of  2-inch  material,  from  12  to  16  feet 
long,  was  approximately  $10  each.  This  includes  material  and  labor. 
The  lumber  used  was  unfinished,  and  the  troughs  were  not  painted. 
The  cost  of  a trough  may  be  greatly  increased  by  using  the  higher 
grades  of  material.  Clear,  finished  2-inch  plank  is  expensive  any- 
where, and  its  value  for  troughs  is  hardly  great  enough  to  warrant 
its  use  in  place  of  the  rough  material  of  lower  grades.  Knots  should 
be  painted  over  with  a heavy  coat  of  lead  paint  or  tar  and  then  cov- 
ered on  both  sides  with  pieces  of  tin.  A knot  thus  reinforced  will 
remain  in  place  as  long  as  the  tin  does,  and  will  seldom  leak.  When 
either  log  or  plank  troughs  begin  to  leak  they  may  be  temporarily 
repaired  by  thi^owing  a few  shovelfuls  of  earth  into  them.  Strips  of 
cloth  forced  into  the  open  seams  vdth  a knife  or  sharpened  stick  will 
also  remedy  a great  many  leaky  places. 

Other  forms  of  wooden  troughs. — Another  type  of  wooden  trough  is 
constructed  of  long,  narrow  staves  bound  together  with  steel  rods. 
These  troughs  are  half  round  ui  shape,  and  the  rods  pass  through 
wooden  cross  pieces  laid  upon  the  top  of  the  trough.  By  means  of 
nuts  at  each  end  the  rods  can  be  tightened  up  as  required.  These 
are  a little  more  expensive  than  the  ordinary  plank  trough,  and  are 
made  either  of  pine  or  redwood  and  in  various  lengths  from  8 to 
16  feet.  As  with  the  plank  trough,  the  main  objection  to  them  is 
the  shrinking  whenever  the  water  is  drawn  out  or  even  lowered  for 
any  length  of  time. 

Troughs  are  often  made  of  planks  put  together  with  tongue  and 
groove  material  in  order  to  make  them  wider  than  single  plank. 
These  are  built  somewhat  in  the  style  of  the  ordinary  water  flume, 
and  are  held  together  by  wooden  frames  of  4-inch  timbers  mortised 
and  tenoned  into  each  other  and  tightened  by  means  of  wooden 
wedges.  Not  only  do  the  seams  of  these  troughs  open  when  the 
trough  is  left  unfilled  for  a short  time,  but  the  planks  themselves 
warp  and  do  not  readily  come  back  into  place  when  pressure  from 
the  wedges  is  applied.  Moreover,  they  are  the  most  expensive  kind 
of  wooden  trough. 


22 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN^  592. 


Metal  troughs. — Where  moderate  cost,  extreme  lightness  of  weight, 
length  of  service,  and  low  cost  of  maintenance  are  desired,  the  com- 
mon metal  trough  used  by  stockmen  is  superior  to  any  other  type. 
They  can  be  procured  either  completely  built  or  in  sheets  punched 
and  ready  for  putting  together.  Their  lasting  qualities,  of  course, 
are  excellent,  and  even  if  a hole  is  cut  in  one  when  ice  is  removed 
during  the  winter  or  from  some  other  cause,  repairs  may  be  made 
cheaply  and  with  the  tools  on  hand  at  almost  every  stock  ranch. 
Metal  troughs  are  commonly  half  round  in  shape,  stiffened  with  an 
iron  or  heavy  wooden  rim  about  the  top,  and  braced  at  intervals  of 
2 or  3 feet  with  iron  rods,  the  ends  of  the  latter  passing  through  a 3 
or  4 inch  brace  on  the  top  of  the  trough  exactly  as  in  a wooden 
trough  of  similar  type.  They  are  but  httle  more  expensive  than  the 
stave  trough  and  last  much  longer.  A number  of  such  troughs  on 
the  Kern  Forest,  in  California,  made  of  No.  18  galvanized  iron,  each 
holding  300  gallons,  cost  approximately  $20  each  dehvered  at  the 
nearest  railroad  station.  The  cost  of  hauling  them  to  the  watering 
places  was  comparatively  low,  and  in  most  cases  the  trough,  work- 
men, tools,  etc.,  were  all  hauled  in  one  wagon.  Each  of  the  troughs 
was  3 feet  wide,  12  feet  long,  and  18  inches  deep.  Another  lot  of 
smaller  troughs,  each  holding  135  gallons  and  built  of  No.  22  gal- 
vanized iron,  cost  about  $17  each  dehvered  at  the  watering  places. 

Oklahoma  fools. — In  recent  years  there  has  come  into  use  a type  of 
watering  trough,  or  more  properly  reservoir,  known  as  the  Oklahoma 
pool.  This  is  made  of  a circular  wall  of  heavy  galvanized  iron, 
generally  not  over  2 feet  high  above  ground,  and  for  sheep  not  over 
12  inches  above  ground.  The  circular  wall  is  placed  on  edge  in  the 
ground  in  a narrow  trench  about  6 inches  deep.  A covering  of 
about  3 or  4 inches  of  stiff  clay,  well  tamped  and  puddled  until  it 
becomes  water-tight,  forms  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  Such  a watering 
trough  is  easily  placed  in  position.  The  material  comes  in  long 
strips  ready  for  fastening  together  at  the  ends  with  rivets.  A 
stout  iron  rod  runs  about  the  top,  making  it  firm  and  safe.  Okla- 
homa pools  can  be  made  as  large  as  necessary,  and  a great  number 
of  stock  can  be  watered  at  the  same  time  without  undue  crowding 
and  fighting.  If  an  animal  gets  into  the  tank,  no  harm  is  done, 
for  the  bottom  is  improved  by  the  tramping  and  the  sides  are  so  low 
that  stock  can  easily  step  over  them.  As  a convenient  storage  reser- 
voir and  water  tank  Oklahoma  pools  are  yery  satisfactory  and  cost 
less  than  the  ordinary  watering  trough  made  of  the  same  material. 

Dirt  reservoirs. — The  small  dirt  reservoir  used  for  drinking  purposes 
is  the  most  unsatisfactory  kind  of  trough.  There  is  an  undue  amount 
of  waste  through  evaporation  and  leakage,  while  the  water  is  always 
more  or  less  fouled  by  the  animals.  The  reservoir  can  not  be  cleaned 
by  any  ordinary  means,  and  so  grows  worse  with  time.  The  type 


STOCK-WATERING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS.  23 

should  be  used  only  when  other  kinds  are  not  available  except  at 
prohibitive  cost,  and  should  be  replaced  by  something  better  at  the 
first  opportunity. 

Cement  troughs. — Where  the  materials  are  readily  available,  and  the 
cost  of  cement  not  prohibitive,  concrete  is  the  best  material  for 
watering  troughs.  If  the  concrete  is  mixed  and  the  troughs  built 
in  the  proper  way,  the  watering  place  is  practically  indestructible. 
The  great  weight  of  such  troughs  prevents  them  from  being  moved  or 
overturned  by  either  animals  or  floods.  They  are  not  affected  by 
decay,  are  easily  cleaned,  and  the  cost  of  upkeep  is  small.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  location  of  a cement  trough  should  be  carefully 
considered,  since  it  can  not  easily  be  moved  if  located  in  the  wrong 
place.  The  walls,  especially  the  corners,  should  be  well  reinforced 
with  iron  rods  or  barbed  wire  placed  in  the  wet  cement  as  the  work 
progresses.  To  avoid  injury  by  freezing,  it  is  customary  to  give 
the  inside  of  the  trough  a gradual  slope  by  making  the  sides  thicker 
at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.  Where  lumber  for  the  forms  is  not 
readily  obtainable,  earth  may  be  scraped  up  into  a mound  and 
the  form  of  the  trough  excavated,  the  walls  of  the  excavation  forming 
the  outside  of  the  trough.  When  finished  and  the  form  removed, 
the  inner  and  outer  surfaces  of  the  trough  should  be  washed  with  a 
mixture  of  pure  cement  put  on  with  a broom  or  brush.  This  will 
close  all  small  cracks  or  seams  and  give  the  work  a finished  appearance. 
The  inlet  and  outlet  pipes  should  be  placed  in  the  mixture  where 
required  as  the  work  progresses.  A collar  placed  about  the  center 
of  these  pipes  will  prevent  leaks  caused  by  the  water  following 
the  pipe  through  the  cement.  The  important  thing  in  constructing 
a concrete  trough  is  to  use  enough  of  the  required  materials,  especially 
cement,  and  to  obtain  materials  of  the  highest  standard. 

Trough  capacity. — If  there  is  a strong  flow  from  a spring,  troughs 
need  not  be  of  unusual  size  or  number.  Wlien  left  to  their  own 
devices  cattle  seldom  travel  or  feed  in  large  bodies,  and  it  is  safe  to 
assume  that  under  ordinary  range  conditions  more  than  a dozen 
head  of  cattle  or  horses  will  scarcely  ever  come  to  water  in  one  bunch. 
Sheep,  however,  must  all  be  watered  at  one  time,  and  that  class  of 
stock  requires  a long  string  of  troughs,  each  of  comparatively  small 
capacity,  rather  than  a few  deep  and  wide  troughs  as  for  cattle.  In 
deciding  the  question  of  trough  capacity  points  to  consider  are  the 
following:  Average  water  requirements  of  each  class  of  stock,  as 
given  on  page  2,  and  in  the  case  of  sheep  the  usual  size  of  the  bands 
and  the  flow  of  the  spring. 

Foundations  for  troughs. — The  life  of  any  form  of  wooden  trough 
will  be  greatly  prolonged  by  placing  it  on  a foundation  which  wiU 
keep  its  bottom  out  of  the  mud  and  water.  At  the  same  time,  the 
trough  should  be  set  low  enough  to  permit  the  young  animals  to 


24 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN,  592. 

drink  from  it.  Cement  or  rock  foundations  are  much  better  tluin 
short  pieces  of  logs,  and  should  always  be  used,  even  where  some  slight 
expense  of  time  and  labor  is  required  to  obtain  the  needed  material. 
If  rocks  are  used  they  should  be  laid  in  cement,  if  possible,  and  the 
foundation  layer  should  be  placed  deep  enough  in  the  ground  to  avoid 
freezing  and  made  sufficiently  wide  to  prevent  settling  when  the 
ground  about  the  trough  becomes  saturated  with  water.  Moreover, 
a log  trough  12  to  1 6 feet  long  when  filled  with  water  has  considerable 
weight,  and  a slight  sinking  of  either  end  of  the  foundation  would  cause 
the  trough  to  leak  or  to  overflow,  and  may  finally  result  in  the  whole 
trough  turning  over.  Wliere  sections  of  a log  are  used  for  the  founda- 
tion, they  should  be  cut  from  some  old,  burned,  pitchy  tree,  which 
is  resistant  to  decay.  If  the  bottom  of  a trough  is  hewed  flat  and 
bound  to  the  foundation  by  means  of  a mortise  4 or  5 inches  deep, 
the  tendency  of  the  log  to  roll  will  be  overcome  much  better  than 
by  simply  setting  the  trough  upon  the  foundation  and  holding  it  in 
place  by  blocks  or  wedges.  The  latter  are  sure  to  work  out  of  place. 

In  the  case  of  cement  troughs  great  care  should  be  taken  to  have 
the  foundation  firm  and  solid.  Otherwise  its  great  weight  will  cause 
it  to  settle  and  perhaps  turn  over. 

Connections  between  troughs. — The  success  of  the  use  of  log  troughs 
depends  very  largely  upon  the  kind  of  connection  between  them 
when  more  than  one  is  used.  The  ends  of  each  trough  should  be 
carefully  squared  with  a saw,  and  the  troughs  placed  as  close  as 
possible  to  each  other,  end  to  end.  An  open  notch  cut  in  the  end 
of  each  trough,  as  deep  as  necessary,  holding  a strip  of  sheet  iron  or  tin 
is  the  best  means  of  carrying  water  from  one  trough  to  another.  It 
will  be  found  far  superior  to  an  iron  pipe,  for  it  will  not  clog  up  with 
leaves  or  grass. 

Drainage  about  troughs. — Every  effort  should  be  made  to  keep  the 
ground  about  troughs  as  dry  as  possible.  There  is  bound  to  be  more 
or  less  slopping  of  water  as  the  animals  drink,  and  a certain  amount  of 
overflow  due  to  stoppage  of  the  pipes.  Moreover,  the  constant  wear- 
ing away  of  the  ground  about  the  trough  forms  holes  in  which  rain 
and  snow  water  collect.  For  this  reason  the  ground  about  the  trough 
where  the  stock  stand  to  drink  should  be  dug  away  to  a depth  of 
from  5 to  6 inches  as  far  back  from  the  troughs  as  advisable.  Into 
this  excavation  logs  should  be  laid  corduroy  fashion,  or  else  a layer 
of  loose  rock  placed  Telford  style,  as  closely  together  as  they  can 
be  wedged,  and  in  a way  to  obtain  a fairly  smooth  and  level  surface. 
If  this  is  done,  and  the  old  dirt  placed  on  top,  the  ground  about 
the  troughs  wiU  usually  be  solid  and  dry.  The  top  layer  of  earth  will 
have  to  be  renewed  occasionally,  of  course,  to  counteract  the  wear 
by  the  feet  of  the  animals  and  the  effect  of  the  wind.  One  of  the 
commonest  sights  on  a poorly  managed  range  is  a string  of  watering 
troughs  so  high  that  only  the  old  stock  can  water,  and  with  a bog 


STOCK-WATERING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS.  25 

hole  in  front  of  them  through  which  the  animals  must  wade  to  ob- 
tain a drink. 

General  suggestions  regarding  troughs. — Every  trough  more  than  18 
inches  wide  should  have  a strong  bar  or  plank  placed  lengthwise  along 
its  center  as  a means  of  keeping  stock  from  getting  into  it,  and  per- 
haps drowning.  This  is  especially  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  half- 
round  type,  with  its  smooth  bottom.  The  plank  should  be  at  least  1 J 
or  2 inch  stuff,  which  will  stand  the  weight  of  an  animal  thrown  upon 
it,  and  should  be  wired  or  bolted  firmly  to  the  crosspieces.  Some- 
times it  is  advisable  to  use  the  planks  laid  side  by  side,  so  that  no 
animal  can  get  all  of  its  head  below  the  cover,  or  else  placed  so  that 
the  opening  on  one  side  is  only  wide  enough  to  allow  the  animal  to  get 
its  head  into  the  trough  as  far  as  the  eyes. 

Every  watering  trough  should  be  carefully  staked  down.  Stock, 
especially  cattle,  in  fighting  for  water  may  often  throw  the  trough 
out  of  line  or  tip  it  over  unless  it  is  securely  fastened.  This  can  be 
done  by  placing  stout  posts  of  some  decay-resisting  wood  at  each 
corner  and  along  the  sides.  The  posts  can  be  wired  to  the  crosspieces 
or  fastened  by  other  means. 

The  most  satisfactory  overflow  or  waste  outlet  is  made  by  placing 
in  the  end  of  the  trough  at  the  proper  water  level  a short  piece  of  pipe 
with  an  elbow  at  each  end.  On  the  inside  of  the  trough  another 
short  piece  should  be  screwed  into  the  elbow  so  as  to  carry  the  pipe 
down  to  within  a short  distance  of  the  bottom.  To  the  outer  elbow 
of  the  pipe  should  be  screwed  another  pipe  long  enough  to  carry  the 
water  to  the  ground  and  off  to  a considerable  distance,  in  order  to 
avoid  a mudhole  about  the  trough.  The  good  point  in  this  arrange- 
ment is  in  the  fact  that  as  the  water  enters  the  outlet  pipe  so  far  below 
its  surface,  little  or  no  foreign  matter  is  likely  to  enter  the  pipe  and 
clog  it.  Care  should,  of  course,  be  taken  not  to  create  a siphon.  In 
the  bottom  of  every  trough  should  be  a hole  at  least  2 inches  in  diam- 
eter from  which  dirt  and  other  matter  may  be  washed  out.  The  hole 
is  ordinarily  closed  wdth  either  a wooden  or  metal  plug.  In  the  case 
of  wdde  watering  troughs  it  is  often  a good  plan  to  run  a fence  through 
the  center  of  the  trough  parallel  wdth  its  length.  This  wdll  keep  the 
animals  from  trying  to  cross  over  or  fighting  across  the  trough,  and 
will  enable  timid  animals,  which  ordinarily  stand  about  waiting  for 
the  rest  to  leave,  to  drink  with  the  others.  Where  the  troughs  are 
not  wide  enough  to  be  divided,  it  is  often  a good  plan  to  fence  them 
so  that  the  animals  can  water  only  from  one  side.  This  is  especially 
desirable  where  the  back  of  the  trough  rests  against  a hillside,  when 
the  stock  if  allowed  to  approach  from  that  side  would  either  carry 
dirt  and  other  waste  material  into  the  troughs  or  else  slip  in  them- 
selves. The  one  objection  to  the  fence  is  that  old  animals,  especially 
cattle,  are  very  likely  to  keep  the  younger  animals  from  drinking  as 
long  as  they  can  hold  their  ground. 


26 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN,  592. 


USE  OF  CEMENT. 

Cement  enters  into  so  many  iniportant  parts  of  water  and  other 
improvement  work  that  a few  suggestions  regarding  its  use  are  given 
here.  For  complete  directions  regarding  cement  the  reader  should 
consult  Farmers’  Bulletin  461,  ‘'The  Use  of  Concrete  on  the  Farm.” 

Six-inch  thickness  of  wall  will  be  sufficient  for  almost  every  pur- 
pose of  water  development.  The  following  formula  gives  the  amount 
of  the  various  materials  needed  in  the  preparation  of  concrete: 

Quantities  of  materials  in  1 cubic  foot  of  concrete. 

Mixture,  1 (portion)  cement,  2 sand,  4 stone  or  gravel: 


Cement  (barrels) 0.  058 

Sand  (cubic  yards) 0163 

Stone  or  gravel  (cubic  yards) 0326 


For  all  ordinary  cement  construction  the  1,  2,  4 proportions  are 
sufficient.  This  means  that  to  1 shovel  or  other  measure  of  cement 
take  2 of  sand  and  4 of  gravel  or  broken  rock.  In  figuring  on  such 
work,  multiply  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  the  proposed  concrete 
structure  by  the  above  factors.  This  will  give  for  the  cement  the 
number  of  barrels  required,  and  for  the  sand  and  rock  the  number  of 
cubic  yards.  To  reduce  the  cement  to  sacks,  multiply  by  4,  there 
being  on  an  average  4 sacks  of  cement  to  a barrel.  One  sack  of  cement 
is  enough  for  1 cubic  foot  of  construction  work.  Assuming  that 
the  work  around  some  spring  will  total  20  cubic  feet,  the  amount  of 
material  needed  would  be  as  follows: 

Cement  20X0.058=1.16  barrels  or  4.64  sacks. 

Sand  20X0.0163=0.3260  cubic  yard. 

Stone  or  gravel  20X0.0326=0.652  cubic  yard. 

Or,  roughly,  20  cubic  feet  of  concrete  will  take  4 1 sacks  cement,  J of  a cubic  yard  of 
sand,  and  f cubic  yard  of  stone  or  gravel. 

Broadly  speaking,  sand  may  be  said  to  include  all  stone  or  grains 
that  will  pass  through  a wire  screen  with  J-inch  mesh.  Sand  so  fine 
that  it  will  pass  through  a 40-mesh  screen  is  unsuitable  for  concrete 
work.  A 40-mesh  screen  is  one  that  contains  40  holes  to  the  square 
inch  of  surface.  Sand  should  bo  free  from  clay,  loam,  or  vegetable 
matter.  To  test  it  in  this  respect,  place  about  4 inches  of  sand  in 
a pint  fruit  jar,  fill  the  jar  with  water  to  within  an  inch  of  the  top, 
place  the  cap  on,  and  shake  vigorously.  If  there  is  more  than  half 
an  inch  of  clay  or  loam  on  top  of  the  sand  when  it  settles,  the  ma- 
terial is  not  fit  for  use.  Sand  made  up  of  grains  of  various  sizes  is 
better  than  sand  of  uniform  size  grains.  A sharp  angular  grain  is 
the  best,  and  hence  “ wind-blown”  sand  is  never  satisfactory.  Gravel, 
like  sand,  should  be  made  up  of  pieces  of  different  sizes.  For  water 
troughs,  spring  curbs,  and  the  like  it  should  range  between  the  size 
that  will  not  pass  through  a J-inch  screen  up  to  that  which  will 


STOCK- WATERING  PLACES  ON  WESTERN  GRAZINCx  LANDS.  27 

pass  through  a l.|-inch  ring.  It  should  bo  froo  from  foreign  matter, 
clay,  loam,  or  dust.  To  get  the  best  results,  the  sand  and  gravel 
should  be  screened  separately  and  then  mixed. 

The  ordinary  wet  mixture  requires  about  5 gallons  of  water  to  a 
sack  of  cement.  Where  the  amount  of  concrete  is  small,  the  water 
should  be  applied  by  means  of  a sprinkling  pot.  In  all  cases  it 
should  be  applied  slowly  in  order  to  avoid  washing  the  cement 
from  the  mixing  board. 

To  mix  the  different  materials,  spread  the  necessary  amount  of 
sand  4 or  6 inches  deep  over  a mixing  board  or  frame  of  suitable 
size  and  as  nearly  water-tight  as  possible.  On  top  of  the  sand  put 
the  necessary  amount  of  cement.  Then,  with  one  man  on  each  side, 
begin  at  one  end  and  slowly  shovel  the  mass  over.  The  material 
should  be  poured  from  the  shovel  with  a swinging  motion  so  as  to 
thoroughly  mix  the  two  parts.  On  top  of  this  mixture  place  the 
rock  and  gravel,  and  shovel  it  all  over  again.  During  this  operation 
the  water  should  be  added.  The  more  the  materials  are  mixed,  the 
better  the  cement  will  coat  each  bit  of  gravel  or  grain  of  sand,  and 
the  more  satisfactory  will  be  the  result. 

The  mixture  should  not  stand  more  than  30  minutes  before  being 
used.  If  by  any  accident  this  should  happen,  the  mixture  should 
be  thrown  away,  since  remixing  it  would  not  be  safe.  As  the  cement 
is  placed  in  the  forms  it  should  be  tamped  down  with  an  ordinary 
tamping  instrument.  When  the  water  begins  to  rise  on  top  of  the 
work  it  is  an  indication  that  the  packing  has  reached  the  proper 
point  of  solidity. 

Cement  work  should  be  sheltered  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
for  5 or  6 days  after  being  set.  During  this  time  it  should  be  kept 
wet,  in  order  that  the  drying-out  process  shall  be  gradual.  Sacks, 
burlap,  hay,  or  straw  mil  serve  the  purpose. 

Forms  may  be  built  of  either  rough  or  planed  lumber.  Where  the 
work  is  in  the  ground,  the  earth  itself  will  ordinarily  form  the  molds. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  form  is  so  braced  and  backed 
that  it  will  not  bulge  out  of  shape.  Forms  should  be  as  water-tight 
as  possible  so  that  the  liquid  cement  will  not  run  through  the  cracks. 

Concrete  will  not  be  injured  by  freezing  after  it  is  placed  in  the 
forms,  provided  no  strain  is  put  upon  it  until  it  has  thoroughly 
thawed  out  and  become  set.  A heavy  covering  of  straw  over  fresh 
cement  work  will  generally  prevent  freezing. 

o 


WASHINGTON  : GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


Contribution  from  the  Rural  Organization  Service,  T,  N.  Carver,  Director. 
June  3,  1914. 


U.S.DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


HOW  TO  USE  FARM  CREDIT. 

By  T.  N.  Carver, 

Director,  Rural  Organization  Service. 

There  is  no  magic  about  credit.  It  is  a powerful  agency  for  good 
1 the  hands  of  those  who  know  how  to  use  it.  So  is  a buzz  saw. 

. hey  are  about  equally  dangerous  in  the  hands  of  those  who  do  not 
•mderstand  them.  Speaking  broadly,  there  are  probably  almost  as 
many  farmers  in  this  country  who  are  suffering  from  too  much  as 
^"•om  too  little  credit.  Many  a farmer  would  be  better  off  to-day  if 
ne  had  never  had  a chance  to’borrow  money  at  all,  or  go  into  debt  for 
le  things  which  he  bought.  However,  that  is  no  reason  why  those 
iarmers  who  do  know  how  to  use  credit  should  not  have  it. 

NATURE  AND  USE  OF  CAPITAL. 

There  is  no  mystery  about  credit  or  capital.  Capital  consists  of 
. )ols  and  equipment,  though  sometimes  we  speak  of  it  as  though  it 
ere  the  money  necessary  to  buy  the  tools  and  equipment.  Capital 
(id  land  are  the  factors  which  call  for  investment  by  the  farmer, 
bus  the  large  use  of  capital  in  farming  has  come  because  of  the 
invention  of  agricultural  machinery.  When  farming  was  done  with 
few  very  simple  tools,  most  of  which  were  made  either  by  the 
irmer  himself  or  by  the  local  blacksmith,  capital  did  not  play  a large 
art  in  agriculture.  Another  way  of  saying  the  same  thing  is  that  it 
id  not  take  much  money  to  buy  all  the  equipment  the  farmer  needed 
: knew  how  to  use.  The  purchase  of  land  was  the  only  thing  requir- 
ing much  money,  and  land,  in  this  country,  was  either  free  or  very 
(heap.  Therefore,  there  was  very  little  money  required  to  start  in 
griculture.  At  the  present  time,  not  only  is  the  price  of  land  rising, 
ut  the  equipment  of  a farm  requires  more  capital  because  of  the 
ncreased  use  of  improved  machinery.  This  is  likely  to  increase  more 
.and  more  as  the  years  go  by. 

Note.— This  bulletin  is  intended  to  help  farmers  with  the  business  side  of  their  enterprises  and  is  suitable 
for  all  sections  of  the  country. 

41695°— 14 


2 


FAEMERS^  BULLETIN  593. 


Capital  is  brought  into  existence  in  only  one  way — that  is,  by  con- 
suming less  than  is  produced.  If  one  has  a doUar,  one  can  spend  it 
either  for  an  article  of  consumption,  say  confectionery,  or  for  an 
article  of  production,  say  a spade.  He  who  buys  a spade  becomes  a 
capitalist  to  the  amount  of  a dollar' — that  is,  he  becomes  an  owner  of 
tools.  The  process  is  precisely  the  same,  whether  the  amount  in 
question  is  a dollar  or  a million  dollars.  If  he  does  not  have  the 
dollar,  his  only  chance  of  getting  the  spade  is  either  .to  borrow  it  or 
borrow  the  money  with  which  to  buy  it.  That  is,  he  must  use  credit. 
Again,  the  process  is  precisely  the  same,  whether  the  amount  be  a 
dollar  or  a million  dollars. 

HOW  CAPITAL  IS  SECURED. 

There  are,  therefore,  only  two  ways  of  securing  capital  for  the 
equipment  of  a farm.  One  is  to  accumulate  it  oneself,  by  consuming 
less  than  one  produces;  the  other  is  to  borrow  it.  The  advantage  of 
borrowing  is  that  one  does  not  have  to  wait  so  long  to  get  possession 
of  the  tools  and  equipment.  One  can  get  them  at  once  and  make 
them  produce  the  means  of  paying  for  themselves.  Without  them, 
the  farmer’s  production  might  be  so  low  as  to  make  it  difficult  ever 
to  accumulate  enough  with  which  to  buy  them.  With  their  help, 
he  may  be  able  to  pay  for  them — that  is,  to  pay  off  the  debt  in  a 
shorter  time  than  it  would  take  to  accumulate  the  purchase  price 
without  them.  That  is  the  only  advantage  of  credit  in  any  business, 
but  it  is  a great  advantage  to  those  who  know  how  to  use  it. 

PROPER  AND  IMPROPER  USES  OF  CREDIT. 

Shortsighted  people,  however,  who  do  not  realize  how  inexorably 
the  time  of  payment  arrives,  who  do  not  know  how  rapidly  tools  wear 
out  and  have  to  be  replaced,  or  who  do  not  keep  accounts  in  order 
that  they  may  tell  exactly  where  they  stand  financially,  will  do  well 
to  avoid  borrowing.  Debts  have  to  be  paid  with  deadly  certainty, 
and  they  who  do  not  have  the  wherewithal  when  the  day  of  reckoning 
arrives,  become  bankrupt  with  equal  certainty. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  nothing  disgraceful  about  borrowing  for 
productive  purposes.  The  feeling  that  it  is  not  quite  respectable  to 
go  into  debt  has  grown  out  of  the  old  habit  of  borrowing  to  pay  living 
expenses.  That  was  regarded,  perhaps  rightly,  as  a sign  of  incompe- 
tency. It  was  then  natural  that  men  should  not  like  to  have  tlieir 
neighbors  know  that  they  had  to  borrow  money.  But  to  borrow  for 
a genuinely  productive  purpose,  for  a purpose  which  will  bring  you 
in  more  than  enough  to  pay  off  your  debt,  principal  and  interest,  is  a 
profitable  enterprise.  It  shows  business  sagacity  and  courage  and  is 
not  a thing  to  be  ashamed  of.  But  it  can  not  be  too  much  emphasized  | 


HOW  TO  USE  FAEM  CREDIT. 


3 


that  the  would-be  borrower  must  calculate  very  carefully  and  be  sure 
that  it  is  a productive  enterpriso  before  he  goes  into  debt. 

This  distinction  between  borrowing  for  a productive  purpose  and 
borrowing  to  pey  living  expenses  will  help  to  explain  why  religious 
leaders  in  times  past  have  been  opposed  to  interest.  It  is  undoubtedly 
a bad  practice  for  men  to  borrow  money  with  which  to  buy  articles 
for  consumption,  except  in  the  most  extreme  cases.  Articles  for  con- 
sumption are  goods  which  are  used  to  satisfy  desires  rather  than  to 
assist  in  production.  Before  the  days  of  expensive  machinery,  when 
capital  was  not  an  important  factor  in  production,  such  a thing  as 
borro\ving  for  productive  purposes  was  practically  unknown.  The 
only  borrowing  that  was  done  was  for.  the  purpose  of  buying  nonpro- 
ductive goods.  This  is  a bad  practice. 

OBJECTION  TO  USE  OF  CREDIT. 

The  question  may  be  asked,  however,  why  did  not  the  early  guard- 
ians of  society  forbid  borrowing  instead  of  forbidding  the  taking  of 
interest  ? The  reason  was  that  so  long  as  the  usurers  were  permitted 
to  offer  loans,  many  shortsighted  people  would  jdeld  to  the  temptation 
to  borrow.  Since  the  purpose  for  which  they  borrowed  added  noth- 
ing to  their  earning  capacity,  they  were  in  no  better  position  to  accu- 
mulate money  after  they  borrowed  than  they  had  been  before.  If 
they  had  been  able  to  accumulate  anything  before,  they  would  not 
have  needed  money.  The  fact  that  they  had  not  been  able  to  accu- 
mulate anything  before  would  be  pretty  conclusive  proof  that  they 
would  not  be  able  to  accumulate  enough  to  pay  the  debt.  There- 
fore, they  put  themselves  into  the  clutches  of  the  usurer. 

Rightly  or  wrongly  this  was  the  attitude  of  the  early  religious  and 
moral  leaders  on  the  subject  of  usury,  or  interest.  Instead  of  for- 
bidding shortsighted  borrowing,  as  aU  borrowing  for  purposes  of  con- 
sumption is,  they  went  to  the  root  of  the  matter,  and  attacked  lend- 
ing for  interest.  Since  the  use  of  productive  machinery,  that  is, 
capital,  has  come  to  play  such  an  important  r61e,  these  considerations 
do  not  apply  to  borrowing  for  productive  purposes.  Therefore,  dis- 
criminating modern  leaders  and  teachers  do  not  oppose  the  taldng  of 
reasonable  interest.  In  fact,  the  State  regulates  this  matter  by 
fixing  the  maximum  legal  interest  charge.  There  is  need,  however, 
of  a revival  of  sentiment  against  lending  for  nonproductive  purposes, 
which  was  aU  that  the  early  leaders  and  teachers  opposed. 

PRINCIPAL  MORE  IMPORTANT  THAN  INTEREST. 

In  the  payment  of  a debt  it  is  not  the  interest  but  the  principal  which 
gives  the  greatest  trouble,  except  where  interest  rates  are  exorbitant. 
If  a man  borrows  $100  for  a year  at  7 per  cent,  he  has  to  pay,  at  the 


4 


farmers’  bulletin  593. 


end  of  the  year,  $107.  If  he  borrows  at  5 per  cent,  he  has  to  pay  $105. 
The  difference  is  $2.  Nowj  $2  is  not  to  be  despised.  Good  business 
consists  in  large  part  in  looking  after  just  such  items  as  this.  Never- 
theless, it  is  only  a little  harder  to  pay  $107  than  to  pay  $105.  The 
point  is  that  the  principal  is  the  same  in  either  case,  and  it  is  the 
principal  which  gives  the  greatest  trouble. 

The  reason  it  has  seemed  necessary  to  emphasize  this  elementary 
fact  is  that  many  people  ^eem  to  imagine  that  if  interest  on  farm  loans 
can  be  reduced  from  7 per  cent  to  5 per  cent,  or  from  6 per  cent  to  4 
per  cent,  conditions  wiU  be  made  easy  for  the  farmers.  It  is  impor- 
tant that  interest  rates  be  lowered  wherever  it  is  economically  pos- 
sible, but  it  is  vastly  more  important  that  farmers  should  learn  how 
to  pay  back  the  principal  easily.  The  only  way  to  do  this  is  to  use 
the  money  borrowed  in  such  a way  as  to  put  one  in  possession  of  the 
means  of  repayment.  If  the  $100  which  a man  borrows  is  spent  for 
fertilizer,  which  adds  $125  to  the  value  of  his  crop,  he  should  not  find 
any  great  difficulty  in  repaying  the  loan,  both  principal  and  interest. 
If  he  uses  it  in  such  a way  as  to  add  only  $75  to  his  crop,  he  will  have 
some  difficulty  in  repaying  the  principal,  saying  nothing  of  the 
interest.  It  is  more  important  that  he  should  be  able  to  use  the  $100 
so  as  to  add  $125  rather  than  $75  to  his  crop,  than  it  is  that  he  should 
be  able  to  borrow  at  5 per  cent  or  even  without  interest. 

An  unproductive  enterprise  is  not  a safe  basis  for  borrowing  under 
any  conditions.  In  other  words,  it  is  of  more  importance  that  the 
enterprise  in  which  one  is  engaged  shall  be  a productive  enterprise 
than  that  the  rate  of  interest  at  which  one  can  borrow  money  is  high 
or  low. 

The  first  and  more  important  rule  to  be  observed,  therefore,  in  the 
use  of  farm  credit  is  to  make  sure  that  it  is  for  a productive  purpose, 
that  is  to  say,  moke  sure  that  the  'pur'pose  for  which  the  loorrowed  money 
is  to  he  used  will  produce  a return  greater  than  needed  to  pay  the  debt. 
Except  in  extreme  cases,  it  is  bad  policy  to  borrow  for  the  purpose  of 
purchasing  anything  which  will  not  help  to  pay  for  itself.  As  a rule, 
the  purchase  of  these  things  should  be  postponed  until  the  farmer  has 
accumulated  the  wherewithal  out  of  his  own  earnings. 

But  if  he  borrows  money  to  buy  fertilizer  and  agrees  to  repay  the 
loan  before  his  crop  has  been  harvested  and  sold,  he  may  have  diffi- 
culty in  repa3dng  it.  One  in  such  a predicament  has  three  possi- 
bilities open  to  him.  He  may  receive  money  from  some  other  source 
at  the  time  the  loan  falls  due,  he  may  get  the  loan  extended  or  the 
note  renewed,  or  he  may  be  sold  out  by  his  creditor.  The  first  is  not 
altogether  desirable  because  it  violates  an  important  principle  of 
business  management;  namely,  that  each  part  of  the  business  shall 
provide  the  means  of  paying  its  own  expenses.  The  second  is  unde- 


HOW  TO  USE  FARM  CREDIT. 


5 


sirable  because  it  puts  liini  in  tlie  position  of  requesting  a favor  of  bis 
creditor,  whereas  all  business  arrangements  between  man  and  man 
ought  to  be  so  clear  and  so  definite  that  neither  shall  need  to  ask 
special  favors  of  the  otlier.  The  tliird  needs  no  comment. 

REPAYMENT  AND  DURATION  OF  LOAN. 

Tliis  brings  us  to  the  second  rule  to  be  observed  in  the  use  of  farm 
credit.  The  contract  should  provide  for  the  repayment  of  the  priji- 
cipal  at  the  most  convenient  time;  that  is,  when  the  farmer  is  most 
hkely  to  have  the  means  wherewith  to  repay  it. 

The  third  rule  is  closely  related  to  the  second.  It  has  to  do  with 
the  duration  of  the  loan,  or  the  time  for  which  the  loan  is  to  run.  If 
a man  borrows  to  buy  fertilizer  which  is  to  be  used  up  in  one  year,  the 
loan  ought  not  to  run  for  more  than  a year.  If  he  is  not  able  to  pay 
the  loan  with  liis  fn*st  crop,  he  will  never  be  in  a position  to  pay  it, 
unless  he  draws  upon  some  other  source  for  the  money.  This  'vdolates 
the  first  rule.  Again,  it  should  not  be  for  a shorter  period  than  the 
growing  season  of  the  crop;  for  that  would  violate  the  second  rule. 
If  he  borrows  for  the  purpose  of  buying  a twine-binder  which  will 
help  in  the  harvesting  of  several  grain  crops,  each  crop  should  not 
only  pay  the  annual  interest  charge,  but  a part  of  the  principal  as  well. 
A small  loan  of  this  kind,  for  an  investment  which  lasts  only  a few 
years,  may  not  give  much  trouble  and  may  not  require  any  special 
method  of  repayment.  But  a heavy  loan,  for  the  purchase  of  land 
or  the  making  of  costly  and  durable  improvements,  may  lay  a con- 
siderable financial  strain  upon  the  farmer.  Any  method  which  will 
reheve  that  strain  is,  therefore,  a matter  of  importance. 

In  order  to  reduce  the  strain  as  much  as  possible  the  loan  should 
be  for  a long  period  of  time.  In  no  case,  of  course,  as  stated  above, 
should  the  loan  outlast  the  improvement.  If  the  borrower  wants  the 
money  to  build  a silo,  and  the  silo  will  last  10  years,  the  loan  should 
not  be  for  more  than  10  years.  It  is  better  to  err  on  the  safe  side,  if  at 
all,  and  pay  the  debt  off  in  less  than  10  years  rather  than  to  let  it  run 
too  long.  If  the  silo  will  not  pay  for  itself  in  that  time,  it  never  will. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  can  scarcely  be  expected  to  pay  for  itself  in  one 
or  two  years.  Unless  the  borrower  has  other  resources,  it  would  be  a 
financial  strain  if  his  debt  has  to  be  paid  so  soon.  The  length  of  time 
the  debt  is  to  run  should  have  a close  relation  to  the  'productive  life  of  the 
improvement  for  which  the  money  is  borrowed.  This  will  do  away  with 
the  necessity  of  having  the  loan  frequently  renewed,  and  it  will  free 
the  borrower  from  subjection  to  an  unscrupulous  lender  who  might 
refuse  to  renew  a short-time  loan  and  insist  on  foreclosure. 


6 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  593. 
REPAYMENT  OF  LONG-TIME  LOANS. 


The  fourth  rule  is  that  'provision  should  he  made  in  the  long-time 
loan  for  the  gradual  reduction  of  the  principal.  There  are  two  well- 
recognized  ways  of  doing  this.  One  is  to  provide  in  the  note  that, 
on  any  interest  date,  the  borrower  may,  if  he  so  desires,  repay  a part 
of  the  principal.  As  the  principal  is  gradually  reduced  the  annual 
interest  charge  is  likewise  reduced,  and  by  paying  the  same  sum 
annually,  the  debt  is  gradually  wiped  out.  Another  method  is  to 
provide  in  the  note  itself  for  a definite  rate  of  amortization  by  fixed 
annual  or  semiannual  payments.  Each  of  these  fixed  payments  not 
only  pays  the  interest  but  a small  part  of  the  principal  besides, 
eventually  wiping  it  out  completely.  Farmers  are  strongly  advised, 
in  all  long-time  loans,  to  insist  on  one  or  the  other  of  these  methods 
of  repayment.  It  may  be  necessary  to  organize  and  work  together 
in  order  to  secure  these  and  other  favorable  terms. 

An  examination  of  the  tables  at  the  end  of  this  article  will  show 
what  may  be  done  by  the  method  of  amortization  by  fixed  annual 
and  semiannual  payments. 

RATES  OF  INTEREST. 

The  fifth  rule  is  that  as'low  interest  rates  as  possible  should  he  secured. 
While  this  is  obvious  enough,  it  is  apparently  not  quite  clear  to  a good 
many  farmers  just  how  to  secure  low  interest  rates.  Interest  rates,  like 
prices  in  general,  depend  upon  the  law  of  supply  and  demand.  When 
there  is  more  loanable  capital  in  a community  than  is  wanted  by  the 
borrowers  of  that  community,  the  rate  of  interest  is  low  and  the  bor- 
rowers can  dictate  terms.  When  there  is  less  loanable  capital  than  is 
wanted  by  borrowers,  interest  is  high  and  and  the  lenders  dictate  terms. 
Obviously,  therefore,  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  borrowers  to  increase  the 
number  of  lenders,  or,  at  least,  to  increase  the  amount  of  loanable  capi- 
tal in  their  community.  The  way  to  increase  the  supply  of  loanable 
capital  is  not  to  denounce  lenders  and  hold  them  up  to  public  hatred. 
That  is  like  throwing  clubs  at  chickens  to  cure  them  of  shyness  and 
make  them  come  when  they  are  called.  The  right  way  is  just  the 
opposite  of  that;  it  is  to  make  the  neighborhood  attractive  to  lenders, 
so  that  they  will  be  anxious  to  come.  Then  the  borrowers  wiU  be  able 
to  secure  favorable  terms.  So  long  as  lenders  are  hated,  so  long  as 
borrowers  habitually  try  to  beat  the  lenders  and  force  them  to  resort 
to  legal  proceedings  to  collect,  just  so  long  will  the  right  kind  of  lenders 
avoid  such  a community,  interest  rates  will  be  high,  terms  unfavorable, 
and  foreclosures  frequent.  The  only  kind  of  lenders  who  will  go  to 
such  a community  are  the  loan  sharks,  who  go  in  for  the  purpose  of 


HOW  TO  USE  FARM  CREDIT.  7 

taking  advantage  of  high  interest  rates  ajul  who  watch  tor  chances 
to  foreclose  mortgages. 

IMPROVING  CREDIT  CONDITIONS. 

The  point  to  remember  is  that  the  farmers  have  it  within  their 
power  to  a large  extent  to  remedy  these  conditions  themselves,  though 
it  may  take  some  careful  planning  and  hard  work.  In  the  first  place, 
they  must  disabuse  their  minds  of  the  notion  that  tangible  property, 
such  as  land,  furnishes  the  best  security  in  the  world.  The  business 
abihty  and  character  of  the  borrower  are  of  even  greater  importance 
in  such  transactions  than  the  value  of  the  land  he  may  own.  Where 
farmers  are  known  to  be  capable  of  paying  their  debts  and  willing  to 
do  so  promptly  and  without  legal  proceedings,  there  credit  conditions 
are  good,  because  the  right  kind  of  lenders  are  attracted.  The  right 
kind  of  lenders  do  not  like  to  foreclose  mortgages  or  resort  to  any 
form  of  legal  procedure.  They  will  avoid  any  neighborhood  where 
such  things  occur  frequently,  and  leave  it  to  others  less  considerate. 
The  right  kind  of  money  lender  merely  wants  his  principal  back, 
together  with  the  stipulated  rate  of  interest.  Where  these  are  assured 
to  him  without  the  vexation  of  legal  procedure,  he  will  go.  Generally 
speaking,  that  is  why  such  vast  quantities  of  loanable  capital  are 
going  to  certain  farming  sections  and  lending  at  low  rates,  rather  than 
going  to  other  sections  where  high  rates  might  be  secured. 

It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  one  farmer  can  do  very  little, 
when  working  alone,  to  give  his  neighborhood  a better  financial  repu- 
tation, or  to  attract  the  right  kind  of  lenders.  This  is  a problem 
which  must  be  worked  out  by  the  whole  community,  or,  at  least,  by  a 
considerable  group  of  men.  Ten  just  men,  it  will  be  remembered, 
might  have  saved  even  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  If  there  are  nine 
other  men  in  your  neighborhood  in  whom  you  have  confidence,  who 
have  confidence  in  one  another  and  in  you,  you  and  they  may  be  able 
to  work  out  this  problem  together.  If  ten  men  can  not  be  found  in  a 
community  who  have  confidence  in  one  another,  how  can  they  hope 
to  find  lenders  from  the  outside  who  will  have  confidence  enough  in 
that  community  to  risk  lending  money  there  ? 

If  ten  or  more  who  have  confidence  in  one  another,  enough  confi- 
dence to  be  wilhng  to  trust  one  another  financially,  can  get  together 
and  hold  together,  they  can  eventually  work  out  their  credit  problems. 

The  tables  on  pages  8,  9,  and  10  show  the  time  necessary  to  pay  a 
debt  of  $1,000,  at  5 per  cent,  by  annual  payments  of  $100,  $90,  $80, 
$75,  and  $70. 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  593. 


Table  1. — Amortization  table. 


Amount  of  loan . . . 

Length  of  term 

Rate  of  interest. . . 
Annual  payments. 


— years., 
per  cent.. 


$1,000 

15 

5 

$100 


[These  figures  apply  proportionately  to  a loan  of  any  amoimt  whatever.] 


Annual  periods. 

Total  annual 
payment. 

Interest  at  5 
per  cent. 

Paid  on  prin- 
cipaL 

Amount  of 
principal 
still  unpaid. 

1 

$100.  00 

$50.  00 

$50.  00 

$950.  00 

2 

100.  00 

47.  50 

52.  50 

897.  50 

3 

100.  00 

44.  87 

55. 13 

842.  38 

4 

100.  00 

42. 12 

57.  88 

784.  49 

5 

100.  00 

39.  22 

60.  78 

723.  72 

6 

100.  00 

36. 19 

63.  81 

659.  90 

7 

100.  00 

33.  00 

67.  00 

592.  90 

8 

100.  00 

29.  64 

70.  36 

522.  54 

9 

100.  00 

26. 13 

73.  87 

448.  67 

10 

100.  00 

22.  43 

77.  57 

371. 11 

11 

100.  00 

18.  56 

81.  44 

289. 66 

12 

100.  00 

14.  48 

85.  52 

204. 14 

13 

100.  00 

10.  21 

89.  79 

114.  35 

14 

100.  00 

5.  72 

94.  28 

20. 07 

15 

21.07 

1.  00 

20.  07 

Total 

1,  421.  07 

421.  07 

1, 000.  00 

Table  2. — Amortization  table. 


Amount  of  loan . . . 

Length  of  term 

Rate  of  interest. . . 
Annual  payments. 


$1,000 

years..  17 

.per  cent. . 5 

$90 


[These  figures  apply  proportionately  to  a loan  of  any  amount  whatever.] 


Annual  periods. 

Total  annual 
payment. 

Interest  at  5 
per  cent. 

Paid  on  inin- 
cipal. 

Amount  of 
principal 
still  unpaid. 

1 

$90.  00 

$50.  00 

$40.  00 

$960.  00 

2 

90.  00 

48.  00 

42.  00 

918.  00 

3 

90.  00 

45.  90 

44. 10 

873.  90 

4 

90.  00 

43.  70 

46.  31 

827.  60 

5 

90.  00 

41.  38 

48.  62 

778.  97 

6 

90.  00 

38.  95 

51.  05 

727.  92 

7 

90.  00 

36.  40 

53.  60 

674.  32 

8 

90.  00 

33.  72 

56.  28 

618.  04 

9 

90.  00 

30.  90 

59. 10 

558.  94 

10 

90.  00 

27.  95 

62.  05 

496.  88 

11 

90.  00 

24.  84 

65. 16 

431.  73 

12 

90.  00 

21.  59 

68.  41 

363.  31 

13 

90.  00 

18. 16 

71.83 

291.  48 

14 

90.  00 

14.  57 

75.  43 

216. 05 

15 

90.  00 

10.  80 

79.  20 

136.  86 

16 

90.  00 

6.  84 

83. 16 

53.  70 

17 

56.  38 

2.  68 

53.  70 

Tota  l - - 

1,  496.  38 

496.  38 

1,  000.  00 

HOW  TO  USE  FARM  CREDIT. 


9 


'Table  3. — Amortization  table. 


Amount  of  loan.., 

Length  of  term 

Rate  of  interest . . . 
Annual  payments. 


$1,000 

years..  21 

.percent..  5 

$80 


[These  figures  apply  proportionately  to  a loan  of  any  amount  whatever.] 


Annual  periods. 

Total  annual 
payment. 

Interest  at  5 
per  cent. 

Paid  on  prin- 
cipal. 

Amount  of 
principal 
still  unpaid. 

1 

$80.  00 

$50.  00 

$30.  00 

$970.  00 

2 

80.  00 

48.  50 

31.  50 

938.  50 

3 

80.  00 

46.  93 

33.  07 

905.  43 

4 

80.  00 

45.  27 

34.  73 

870.  70 

5 

80.  00 

43.  54 

36.  47 

834.  23 

6 

80.  00 

41.  71 

38.  29 

795.  94 

7 

80.  00 

39.  80 

40.  20 

755.  74 

8 

80.  00 

37.  79 

42.  21 

713.  53 

9 

80.  jOO 

35.  68 

44.  32 

669.  20 

10 

80.  00 

33.  46 

46.  54 

622.  66 

11 

80.  00 

31. 13 

48.  87 

573.  80 

12 

80.  00 

28.  69 

51.  31 

522.  49 

13 

80.  00 

26.  12 

53.  87 

468.  61 

14 

80.  00 

23.  43 

56.  57 

412.  04 

15 

80.  00 

20.  60 

59.  40 

352.  64 

16 

80.  00 

17.  63 

62.  37 

290.  27 

17 

80.  00 

14.  51 

65.  49 

224.  79 

18 

80.  00 

11.  24 

68.  76 

156.  03 

19 

80.  00 

7.  80 

72.  20 

83.  83 

20 

80.  00 

4. 19 

75.  81 

8.  02 

21 

8.  42 

. 40 

8.  02 

Total 

1,  608.  42 

608.  42 

1, 000.  00 

Table  4. — Amortization  table. 


Amount  of  loan 

Length  of  term years. . 

Rate  of  interest per  cent. . 

Annual  payments 


$1,000 

23 

5 

$75 


[These  figures  apply  proportionately  to  a loan  of  any  amount  whatever.] 


Annual  periods. 

Total  annual 
payment. 

Interest  at  5 
per  cent. 

Paid  on  prin- 
cipal. 

Amount  of 
principal 
still  impaid. 

1 

$75.  00 

$50.  00 

$25.  00 

$975.  00 

2 

75.  00 

48.  75 

26.  25 

948.  75 

3 

75.  00 

47.  44 

27.  56 

921. 19 

4 

75.  00 

46.  06 

28.  94 

892.  25 

5 

75.  00 

44.  61 

30.  39 

861.  86 

6 

75.  00 

43.  09 

31.  91 

829.  95 

75.  00 

41.  50 

33.  50 

796.  45 

75.  00 

39.  82 

35. 18 

761.  27 

9 

75.  00 

38.  06 

36.  94 

724.  34 

10 

75.  00 

36.  22 

38.  78 

685.  55 

11 

75.  00 

34.  28 

40.  72 

644.  83 

12 

75.  00 . 

32.  24 

42.  76 

602.  08 

13 

75.  00 

30. 10 

44.  90 

557. 17 

14 

75.  00 

27.  86 

47. 14 

510.  03 

15 

75.  00 

25.  50 

49.50 

460.  54 

10 


FAKMERS  BULLETIN  593. 


Table  4. — Amortization  table — Continued. 


Annual  periods. 

Total  annual 
payment. 

Interest  at  5 
per  cent. 

Paid  on  prin- 
cipal. 

Amount  of 
principal 
still  unpaid. 

16 

$75.  00 

$23.  03 

$51.  97 

$408.  56 

17 

75.  00 

20.  43 

54.  57 

353.  99 

18 

75.  00 

17.  70 

57.  30 

296.  69 

19 

75.  00 

14.  83 

60. 17 

236.  52 

20 

75.  00 

11.  83 

63. 17 

173.  35 

21 

75.  00 

8.  67 

66.  33 

107.  02 

22 

75.  00 

5.  35 

69.  65 

37.  37 

23 

39.  24 

1.  87 

37.  37 

Total 

1,  689.  24 

689.  24 

1, 000.  00 

Table  5. — Amortization  table. 


Ajnount  of  loan... 

Length  of  term 

Rate  of  interest. . . 
Annual  payments 


$1,000 

...years..  20 

percent..  5 

$70 


[These  figures  apply  proportionately  to  a loan  of  any  amount  whatever.) 


Annual  periods. 

Total  annual 
payment. 

Interest  at  5 
per  cent. 

Paid  on  prin- 
cipal. 

Amount  of 
principal 
stiU  unpaid. 

1 

$70.  00 

$50.  00 

$20.  00 

$980.  00 

2 

70.  00 

49.00 

21.  00 

959.  00 

3 

70.  00 

47.  95 

22.  05 

936.  95 

4 

70.  00 

46.  85 

23. 15 

913.  80 

5 

70.  00 

45.  69 

24.  31 

889.  49 

6 

70.  00 

44.  47 

25.  52 

863.  96 

7 

70.  00 

43.  20 

26.  80 

837. 16 

8 

70.  00 

41.86 

28. 14 

809.  02 

9 

70.  00 

40.  45 

29.  55 

779.  47 

10 

70.  00 

38.  97 

31.03 

748.  44 

11 

70.00 

37.42 

32.  58 

715.  86 

12 

70.  00 

35.  79 

34.  21 

681.  66 

13 

70.  00 

34.  08 

35.  92 

645.  74 

14 

70.00 

32.29 

37.  71 

608.  03 

15 

70.  00 

30.  40 

39.  60 

568.  43 

16 

70.  00 

28.  42 

41.  58 

526.  85 

17 

70.  00 

26.  34 

43.  66 

483. 19 

18 

70.00 

24. 16 

45.  84 

437.  35 

19 

70.  00 

21.87 

48. 13 

389.  22 

20 

70.  00 

19.  46 

50.  54 

338.  68 

21 , 

70.  00 

16.  94 

53.  07 

285.  61 

22 

70.  00 

14.  28 

55.  72 

229.  89 

23 

70.  00 

11.  50 

58.  50 

171.  39 

24 

70.  00 

8.  57 

61.  43 

109.  96 

25 

70.  00 

5.  50 

64.  50 

45.  46 

26  

47.  73 

2.  27 

45.  46 

Tntnl 

1,  797.  73 

797.  73 

1,  000.  00 

HOW  TO  USE  FARM  CREDIT. 


11 


The  tables  on  pages  11,  12,  13,  and  14  show  the  time  necessary  to 
pay  a debt  of  $1,000,  at  6 per  cent  interest,  by  annual  payments  of 
$100,  $90,  $80,  $75,  and  $70. 

Table  6. — Amortization  table. 


Amount  of  loan... 
Length  of  term  . . . 
Rate  of  interest . . . 
Annual  payments. 


$1,000 

...years..  16 

percent..  6 

$100 


[These  figures  apply  proportionately  to  a loan  of  any  amount  whatever.] 


Aimual  periods. 

Total  annual 
payment. 

Interest  at  6 
per  cent. 

Paid  on  prin- 
cipal. 

Amount  of 
principal 
still  impaid. 

1 

$100.  00 

$60.  00 

$40.  00 

$960.  00 

9 

100.  00 

57.  60 

42.  40 

917.  60 

3 

100.  00 

55.06 

44.  94 

872.  66 

4 

100.  00 

52.  36 

47.  64 

825.  02 

5 

100.  00 

49.  50 

50.  50 

774.  52 

6 

100. 00 

46.  47 

53.  53 

720.  99 

7 

100.  00 

43.  26 

56.  74 

664.  25 

8 

100.  00 

39.  85 

60. 15 

604. 10 

9 

100.  00 

36.25 

63.  75 

540.  35 

10 

100.  00 

32.  42 

67.  58 

472.  77 

11 

100.  00 

28.  37 

71.  63 

401. 13 

12 

100.  00 

24.  07 

75.  93 

325.  20 

13 

100.  00 

19.  51 

80.  49 

244.  71 

14 

100.  00 

14.  68 

85.  32 

159.  40 

15 

100.  00 

9.  56 

90.  44 

68.  96 

16 

73. 10 

4. 14 

68.  96 

Total 

1,  573. 10 

573. 10 

1,000.00 

Table  7. — Amortization  table. 


Amount  of  loan . . . 

Length  of  term 

Rate  of  interest. . . 
Annual  payments. 


$1,000 

...years..  19 

percent..  6 

$90 


[These  figures  apply  proportionately  to  a loan  of  any  amount  whatever.] 


Aimual  periods. 

Total  annual 
payment. 

Interest  at  6 
per  cent. 

Paid  on  prin- 
cipal. 

Amount  of 
principal 
stiU  unpaid. 

$90.  00 

$60.  00 

$30.  00 

$970.  00 

2 

90.  00 

58.  20 

31.  80 

938.  20 

3 

90.  00 

56.  29 

33.  71 

904.  49 

4 

90.  00 

54.  27 

35.  73 

868.  76 

5 

90.  00 

52. 13 

37.  87 

830.  89 

6 

90.  00 

49.  85 

40. 15 

790.  74 

7 

90.  00 

47.  44 

42.  55 

748. 18 

8 

90.  00 

44.  89 

45. 11 

703.  08 

9 

90.  00 

42. 19 

47.  82 

655.  26 

10 

90.00 

39.  32 

50.  68 

604.  58 

12 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  593. 


Table  7. — Amortization  table — Continued. 


Annual  periods. 

Total  annual 
payment. 

Interest  at  G 
per  cent. 

Paid  on  prin- 
cipal. 

Amount  of 
principal 
still  unpaid. 

11 

$90.  00 
90.  00 
90.00 
90.  00 
90.  00 

90.  00 
90.00 
90.  00 
77.  20 

$36.  28 
33.  05 
29.  63 
26.  01 
22. 17 

18. 10 
13.  79 
9.  22 
4.  37 

$53.  72 
56.  95 
60.  37 
63.  99 
67.  83 

71.  90 
76.21 
80.  78 

72.  83 

$550.  85 
493.  90 
433.  54 
369.  55 
301.  72 

229.  82 
153.  61 
72.  83 

12 

13 

14- 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

Total 

1,  697.  20 

697.  20 

1, 000.  00 

Table  8. — Amortization  table. 


Amount  of  loan . . . 

Length  of  term 

Rate  of  interest. . . 
Annual  payments. 


$i,oao 

... years--  24 

.percent.-  6 

«80 


[These  figures  apply  proportionately  to  a loan  of  any  amount  whatever.] 


Annual  periods. 


1-. 

2.. 

3.. 
4-. 

5.. 

6.. 
7-. 

8.. 
9-. 
10. 

11. 

12. 

13 

14 

15 

16. 

17 

18. 

19 

20 

21 

22. 

23 

24 


Total  annual 
payment. 

Interest  at  6 
per  cent. 

Paid  on  prin- 
cipal. 

Amount  of 
principal 
still  unpaid. 

$80.  00 

$60.  00 

$20.  00 

$980.  00 

80.  00 

58.  80 

21.  20 

958.  80 

80.  00 

57.  53 

22.  47 

936.  33 

80.  00 

56. 18 

23.  82 

912.  51 

80.  00 

54.  75 

25.  25 

887.  26 

80.  00 

53.  24 

26.  76 

860.  49 

80.  00 

51.  63 

28.  37 

832. 12 

80.00 

49.  93 

30.  07 

802.  05 

80.00 

48. 12 

31.  88 

770. 17 

80.  00 

46.  21 

33.  79 

. 736.38 

80.  00 

44. 18 

35.  82 

700.  57 

80.  00 

42.03 

37.  97 

662.60 

80.00 

39.  76 

40.  24 

622.  36 

80.  00 

37.  34 

42.  66 

579.  70 

80.  00 

34.  78 

45.  22 

534.  48 

80.  00 

32.  07 

47.  93 

486.  55 

80.  00 

29. 19 

50.  81 

435.  74 

80.  00 

26.14 

53.  86 

381.  89 

80.  00 

22.  91 

57.  09 

324.  80 

80.00 

19.  49 

60.  51 

264.  29 

80.  00 

15.  86 

64. 14 

200. 14 

80.00 

12.  01 

67.  99 

132. 15 

80.  00 

7.  93 

72.  07 

60.08 

63.  68 

3.  60 

60.  08 

1,  903.  68 

903,  68 

1, 000.  00 

Total 


HOW  TO  USE  FARM  CREDIT. 


13 


Table  9. — Amortization  table. 


Amount  of  loan . . . 
Length  of  term . . . 
Rate  of  interest . . . 
Annual  payments 


$1,000 

years..  28 

percent..  6 

$75 


[These  figmes  apply  proportionately  to  a loan  of  any  amount  whatever.] 


Annual  periods. 

Total  annual 
payment. 

Interest  at  6 
per  cent. 

Paid  on  prin- 
cipal. 

Amount  of 
principal 
still  unpaid. 

1 

$75.  00 

$60.  00 

$15.  00 

$985.  00 

2 

75.  00 

59. 10 

15.  90 

969. 10 

3 

75.  00 

58. 15 

16.  85 

952.  25 

4 

75.  00 

57. 13 

17.  87 

934.  38 

5 

75.  00 

56.  06 

18.  94 

915.  44 

6 

75.  00 

54.  93 

20.  07 

895.  37 

7 

75.  00 

53.  72 

21.  28 

874.  09 

8 

75.  00 

52.  45 

22.  56 

851.  54 

9 

75.  00 

51.  09 

23.  91 

827.  63 

10 

75.  00 

49.  66 

25.  34 

802.  29 

11 

75.  00 

48. 14 

26.  86 

775.  43 

12 

75.  00 

46.  52 

28.  48 

746.  95 

13 

75.  00 

44.  82 

30. 18 

716.  77 

14 

75.  00 

43.  01 

31.  99 

684.  77 

15 

75.  00 

41.  09 

33.  91 

650.  86 

16 

75.  00 

39.05 

35.  95 

614.  91 

17 : 

75.  00 

36.  89 

38. 11 

576.  81 

18 

75.  00 

34.  61 

40.  39 

536.  41 

19 

75.  00 

32. 18 

42.  82 

493.  60 

20 

75.  00 

29.  61 

45.  38 

448.  22 

21 

75.  00 

26.  89 

48. 11 

400. 11 

22 

75.  00 

24.  01 

50.  99 

349. 11 

23 

75.  00 

20.  95 

54.  05 

295.  06 

24 

75.  00 

17.  70 

57.  30 

237.  76 

25 

75.  00 

14.  27 

60.  73 

177.  03 

26 

75.  00 

10.  62 

64.  38 

112.  65 

27 

75.  00 

6.  76 

68.  24 

44.  41 

28 

47.  07 

2.  66 

44.  41 

Total 

2,  072  07 

1, 072.  07 

1, 000.  00 

14 


FAKMERS  BULLETIN  593. 


Table  10. — Amortization  table. 


Amount  of  loan. .. 
Length  of  term . . . 
Rate  of  interest. . . 
Annual  payments. 


$1,000 

— years..  34 
.percent..  G 
$70 


[These  figures  apply  proportionately  to  a loan  of  any  amount  whatever.] 


Annual  periods. 

Total  annual 
payment. 

Interest  at  6 
per  cent. 

Paid  on  prin- 
cipal. 

Amount  of 
principal 
still  unpaid. 

1 

$70.  00 

$60.  00 

$10.  00 

$990.  00 

2 

70.  00 

59.  40 

10.  60 

979.  40 

3 

70.  00 

58.  76 

11.  24 

968. 16 

4 

70.  00 

58.  09 

11.91 

956.  25 

5 

70.  00 

57.  38 

12.  62 

943.  63 

6 

70.  00 

56.  62 

13.  38 

930.  25 

7 

70.  00 

55.81 

14. 19 

916.  06 

8 

70.  00 

54.  96 

15.  04 

901.  02 

9 

70.  00 

54.  06 

15.  94 

885.  09 

10 

70.  00 

53. 11 

16.89 

868. 19 

11 

70.  00 

52.  09 

17.  91 

850.  28 

12 

70.  00 

51.  02 

18.  98 

831.  30 

13 

70.  00 

49.  88 

20. 12 

811. 18 

14 

70.  00 

48.  67 

21.  33 

789.  85 

15 

70.  00 

47.  39 

22.  61 

767.  24 

16 

70.  00 

46.  03 

23.  97 

743.  27 

17 

70.  00 

44.  60 

25.  40 

717.87 

18 : 

70.  00 

43.  07 

26.  93 

690.  94 

19 

. 70.  00 

41.  46 

28.  54 

662.  40 

20 

70.  00 

39.  74 

30.  26 

632. 14 

21 

70.  00 

37.  93 

32.  07 

600.  07 

22 

70.  00 

36.  00 

34.  00 

566.  08 

23 

70.  00 

33.  96 

36.  04 

530.  04 

24 

70.  00 

31.  80 

38.  20 

491.  84 

25 

70.  00 

29.  51 

40.  49 

451.  35 

26 

70.  00 

27.  08 

42.  92 

408.  43 

27 

70.  00 

24.  51 

45.  49 

362.  94 

28 

70.  00 

21.  78 

48.  22 

314.  72 

29 

70.  00 

18.  88 

51. 12 

263.  60 

30 

70.  00 

15.  82 

54. 18 

209.  42 

31 

70.  00 

12.  56 

57.  44 

151.  98 

32 

70.  00 

9. 12 

60.  88 

91. 10 

33 

70.  00 

5.  47 

64.  53 

26.  56 

34 

28. 15 

1.  59 

26.  56 

Total 

2,  338. 15 

1,  338. 15 

1, 000.  00 

O 


WASHINGTON  : GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


2J.S. DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Office  of  Markets,  Charles  J.  Brand,  Chief. 
June  4,  1914. 


SHIPPING  EGGS  BY  PARCEL  POST.' 


By  liEwis  B.  Flohr,  Scientific  Assistant. 

INTRODUCTION. 

There  is  a most  active,  nation-wide  interest  in  methods  of  elimi- 
nating waste  and  expense  in  getting  food  products  from  the  farm  to 
he  consumer.  This  is  a natural  result  of  prevailing  high  prices  to 
ohe  city  buyer  and  low  net  returns  to  the  grower.  The  farmer  has 
ost  much  of  his  old-time  interest  in  growing  larger,  better  crops  at 
reater  expense,  which  frequently  bring  him  lower  prices  and  smaller 
eturns,  or  even  losses,  without  reducing  prices  to  the  consumer. 

There  are  many  products  which  are  ready  for  use  when  they  leave 
he  farm;  to  a considerable  extent  these  can  be  marketed  direct  by 
Lie  farmer  to  the  consumer.  This  will  obviate  the  necessity  for  con- 
entrating  any  given  product  in  large  quantities  in  storage  or  market- 
ig  centers,  save  the  cost  incident  to  this  concentration  and  conse- 
•uent  redistribution,  and  get  the  product  to  the  consumer  in  a fresher, 
letter  condition.  The  parcel  post  offers  a channel  or  means  for  such 
marketing. 

The  Postmaster  General  has  done  much  to  popularize  the  parcel 
ost,  and  a great  deal  has  been  said  in  the  public  press  in  regard  to  its 
tilization  in  establishing  direct  business  intercourse  between  country 
nd  city.  The  Office  of  Markets,  in  cooperation  with  officials  of  the 
*ost  Office  Department,  has  conducted  an  extensive  study  of  the 
ossibilities  of  marketing  various  farm  and  food  products  by  parcel 
ost,  with  a view  to  promoting  direct  dealing  when  practicable.  The 
/ork  of  shipping  eggs  has  progressed  to  a point  where  definite  con- 
fusions based  on  experimental  data  can  be  stated.  More  than  seven 
mndred  dozens  of  eggs  have  been  sliipped  experimentally  through  the 
Qails,from  various  points,  under  various  conditions,  and  in  various  dif- 
.erent  types  of  containers,  without  undue  loss,  showing  that  it  is  un- 

1 This  bulletin  presents  conclusions  from  recent  investigations  made  in  cooperation  with  the  Post  Office 
Department.  It  contains  matter  which  at  the  present  time  is  arousing  considerable  public  interest  and 
furnishes  information  as  to  the  use  of  the  parcel  post  as  a channel  of  communication  between  the  producer 
and  consumer  which  will  prove  of  value  to  every  postmaster  as  well  as  to  the  patrons  of  their  offices. 

42675°— 14 1 


.2 


FAliMEKS^  BULLETIN  594. 


doubtedly  a feasible  and  practical  method  of  transporting  eggs.  This 
is  true  both  as  regards  the  cost  of  shipment  and  the  condition  of  the 
eggs  on  reaching  the  consumer’s  kitchen. 

While  it  is  probable  that  for  some  time  to  come  the  great  bulk  of 
eggs  which  come  from  distant  producing  territory  will  be  shipped  by 
other  methods,  it  is  no  doubt  true  that  many  cities  can  he  supplied 
with  a considerable  portion  of  their  fresh  eggs  from  within  the  first 
and  second  zones  by  parcel  post  to  the  advantage  of  both  producer 
and  consumer.  By  such  direct  contact  the  producer  should  secure 
somewhat  better  prices  for  his  eggs  than  are  realized  by  present  methods 
of  marketing,  and  the  consumer  should  obtain  a fresher  quality  at  no 
increased  cost,  or,  frequently,  even  at  a reduction  in  price.  The  pro- 
ducer who  does  not  have  satisfactory  marketing  facilities  may  find 
in  the  parcel  post  a means  of  solving  his  egg-marketing  problems. 
This  applies  especially  to  the  man  whose  flock  is  so  small  that  he  can 
not  make  case  shipments,  i.  e.,  shipments  in  the  regular  30-dozen-size 
egg  case. 

SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTAL  SHIPMENTS. 

Four  hundred  and  sixty-six  shipments  were  made  in  the  experi- 
ments. They  comprised  a total  of  760 dozens,  or  9,131  eggs,  in  lots 
of  from  1 to  10  dozen  each.  The  number  of  eggs  broken  was  327,  or 
slightly  less  than  3.6  per  cent  of  the  whole  number.  Of  these,  209 
eggs,  or  slightly  less  than  2.3  per  cent,  were  broken  too  badly  to  use; 
the  remaining  118  were  usable.  If  91  eggs  broken  in  parcels  known 
to  have  received  violent  usage  be  eliminated,  the  breakage  resulting 
in  loss  is  less  than  1 .3  per  cent. 

The  instructions  issued  by  the  Post  Office  Department  for  the 
handling  of  fragile  mail  matter  (which  includes  eggs)  are  carefully 
drawn  and  quite  ample.  If  all  employees  of  the  postal  service  could 
be  educated  to  observe  the  instructions  faithfully  the  breakage  could 
be  reduced  to  a negligible  minimum.  This  presupposes  proper  prepa- 
ration for  mailing. 

These  experimental  shipments  were  made  over  various  routes  and 
distances,  including  not  only  local  shipments  over  short  routes  but 
points  as  far  away  from  Washington  as  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  They  began  in  October,  1913,  and  extended  to 
February,  1914,  thus  inclufling  the  holiday  rush.  The  shipments  have 
been  sufficiently  numerous  to  justify  the  conclusion  that  eggs  can  be 
shipped  by  mail  satisfactorily  under  the  existing  postal  provisions, 
provided  these  are  rigorously  observed. 

THE  EGGS. 

Parcel  post  is  a new  medium  for  marketing  eggs  and  its  successful 
use  imposes  the  need  of  greater  care  on  the  producer.  Only  such  eggs 
should  be  shipped  as  are  produced  by  healthy  fowls  kept  under  proper 


SHIPPING  EGGS  BY  PARCEL  POST. 


3 


sanitary  conditions  and  supplied  with  sound,  wholesome  feed.  If 
possible  only  nonfertile  eggs  should  bo  produced  for  market;  fertile 
eggs  deteriorate  rapidly  and  are  the  cause  of  much  loss.  A broody 
hen  on  the  nest,  or  exposure  to  a temperature  from  other  sources 
sufficient  to  start  incubation,  causes  all  such  eggs  to  be  rejected  when 
they  are  candled.  Eggs  should  be  cared  for  carefully,  beginning  with 
keeping  the  fowls  under  such  conditions  that  the  eggs  wdll  not  bo 
soiled  in  the  nest  by  mud  from  the  feet  of  the  hens  or  otherwise;  they 
should  bo  gathered  at  least  once  a day  (twice  will  be  better)  and 
should  be  stored  in  a well-ventilated  place,  which  must  be  kept  as  cool 
as  possible.  Eggs  intended  for  high-class  trade  should  never  be 
washed,  as  washing 
removes  the  natural 
mucilaginous  coat- 
ing of  the  egg  and 
opens  the  pores  of 
the  shell.  Eggs 
which  have  been 
soiled  should  be  kept 
for  home  use  or  dis- 
posed of  otherwise 
than  to  a parcel-post 
customer. 

In  spite  of  the 
greatest  care  it  will 
sometimes  happen 
under  ordinary  farm 
conditions  that  an 
occasional  bad  egg 
will  appear  among 
those  sent  to  market. 

It  would  be  wise  to  illustrates  a homemade  candling  outfit,  consisting  of 

small  lamp  and  corrugated  pasteboard  box. 

candle  every  egg 

shipped.  Candling  is  “ the  process  of  testing  eggs  by  passing  light 
through  them  so  as  to  reveal  the  condition  of  the  contents.’’  A simple 
candling  outfit  may  be  made  of  an  ordinary  pasteboard  box  suffi- 
ciently largo  to  bo  placed  over  a small  hand  lamp  after  the  ends  have 
been  removed.  The  box  should  have  a hole  cut  in  it  on  a level  with 
the  flame  of  the  lamp.  Several  notches  should  be  cut  in  the  edges  on 
which  the  box  rests,  to  supply  air  to  the  lamp.  The  box  should  be 
sufficiently  largo  to  prevent  danger  from  catching  fire.  The  box  shown 
in  figure  1 is  made  of  corrugated  pasteboard;  ordinary  pasteboard 
will  serve  the  purpose.  Candling  is  done  in  the  dark,  or  at  least 
away  from  strong  light,  and  each  egg  is  held  against  the  hole  in  the 
side  of  the  box,  when  its  condition  may  be  seen.  An  egg  that  shows 
any  defect  should  not  be  marketed. 


4 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  594. 


Only  first-class  eggs  can  be  successfully  marketed  by  parcel  post. 
The  shipping  of  bad  eggs  would  not  only  cause  dissatisfaction  or  even 
the  loss  of  the  customer,  but  if  persisted  in  would  doubtless  be  con- 
strued as  a violation  of  the  purc-food  law. 

Persons  desiring  to  build  up  a business  of  marketing  eggs  by  this 
method  should  hatch  their  chicks  early  enough  to  have  them  begin 
laying  in  the  fall  season  when  eggs  are  scarce  and  high  priced.  This 
will  also  result  in  more  evenly  distributed  production  throughout 
the  year.^ 

PRESERVING  EGGS  IN  WATER  GLASS. 

In  the  spring,  when  they  are  plentiful,  eggs  may  be  preserved  for 
home  use  in  a solution  of  water  glass,  so  that  those  laid  during  the  fall 
and  winter  season  may  be  available  for  marketing.  A standard 
grade  of  water  glass  can  be  obtained  at  drug  stores  for  75  cents  per 
gallon,  if  bought  in  moderately  large  quantities.  Each  quart  of 
water  glass  should  be  diluted  with  10  quarts  of  water,  which  has  been 
boiled  and  cooled.  Only  strictly  fresh,  newly  laid  eggs  should  be 
placed  in  the  solution.  Stone  jars  or  crocks  should  be  used.  The 
eggs  may  be  packed  in  these  and  the  solution  poured  over  them,  or 
the  eggs  may  be  placed  daily  in  the  solution  by  putting  them  down 
in  it  carefully  by  hand  so  as  to  avoid  breaking  or  cracking  them. 
The  solution  will  not  injure  the  hands.  The  jars  should  be  put  where 
they  are  to  be  kept  before  the  eggs  are  placed  in  them,  and  should 
not  be  moved,  because  breakage  and  loss  may  result.  The  water- 
glass  solution  may  become  cloudy,  but  this  is  a natural  condition  and 
should  cause  no  alarm. 

Eggs  thus  kept  are  good  for  all  purposes,  but  the  shells  break 
rather  easily  in  boihng.  This  trouble  can  be  prevented  by  puncturing 
the  end  of  the  shell  with  a pin  or  needle  just  before  boiling.  Perhaps 
an  occasional  customer  will  be  wilhng  to  buy  eggs  preserved  in  water 
glass,  but  they  should  be  sold  for  just  what  they  are  and  at  a price 
mutually  agreed  upon  by  the  producer  and  consumer. 

1 The  following  publications  prepared  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Department  of  Agriculture, 
will  be  helpful  to  poultry  raisers: 

Farmers’  Bulletin  51,  Standard  varieties  of  chickens. 

Farmers’  Bulletin  236,  Incubation  and  incubators. 

Farmers’  Bulletin  287,  Poultry  management. 

Farmers’  Bulletin  445,  Marketing  eggs  through  the  creamery. 

Farmers’  Bulletin  452,  Capons  and  caponizing. 

Farmers’  Bulletin  528,  Hints  to  poultry  raisers. 

Farmers’  Bulletin  530,  Important  poultry  diseases. 

Farmers’  Bulletin  562,  The  organization  of  boys’  and  girls'  poultry  ciubs. 

B.  A.  I.  Circular  176,  A system  of  poultry  accounting. 

These  publications  may  be  obtained  free  from  the  Division  of  Publications,  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C, 


SHIPPING  EGGS  BY  PARCEL  POST. 


5 


CONTAINERS. 

Experience  has  shown  that  frequently  parcels  are  mailed  in  con- 
tainers not  sufficiently  strong  and  inadequately  prepared  and  pro- 
tected. These  are  frequently  the  cause  of  complaint.  The  producer 
who  desires  to  make  use  of  the  parcel  post  sliould  provide  such  con- 
tainers or  carriers  as  meet  the  requirements  of  the  postal  authorities, 
and  such  as  will  carry  the  particular  product  in  a manner  satisfactory 
to  the  consumer.  Otherwise  he  will  lose  his  customer,  and  should  the 
container  or  carrier  not  be  sufficiently  stout  to  stand  the  service  it 


Fig.  2.— This  illustration  shows  two  2-dozen-size  corrugated-pasteboard  egg  boxes.  The  one  to  the 
left  is  closed.  The  other  is  taken  apart  to  show  construction.  The  two  inner  pieces  of  the  case  fold 
around  the  egg  fillers  and  slip  into  the  outer  case  sho^vn  on  top.  In  filling,  the  box  is  not  taken  com- 
pletely apart  but  only  opened  up  properly. 

will  not  be  worth  returning  as  an  empty  to  use  again,  if  intended 
to  be  returned. 

The  postal  requirements  for  mailing  eggs  for  local  delivery  are  as 
follows : 

Eggs  shall  be  accepted  for  local  delivery  when  so  packed  in  a basket  or  other  con- 
tainer as  to  prevent  damage  to  other  mail  matter. 

This  embraces  all  collection  and  delivery  service  within  the  juris- 
diction of  the  postmaster  of  the  office  where  the  parcel  is  mailed. 

Eggs  to  be  sent  beyond  the  local  office  are  to  be  prepared  for  mail- 
ing as  follows : 

Eggs  shall  be  accepted  for  mailing  regardless  of  distance  when  each  egg  is  wrapped 
separately  and  surrounded  with  excelsior,  cotton,  or  other  suitable  material  and  packed 


6 


FARMERS^  BULI.ETIN  514. 


in  a strong?  container  made  of  double-faced  corrui^ated  pasteljoard,  metal,  wood,  or  other 
suitable  material  and  wrapped  so  that  nothin^  can  escape  from  the  j^ackage.  All  such 
parcels  shall  be  labeled  “Eggs.” 

Eggs  in  parcels  weighing  more  than  20  pounds  shall  be  accepted  for  mailing  to  ofTices 
in  the  first  and  second  zones  when  packed  in  crates, l)oxes,  buckets,  or  other  containers 
having  tight  bottoms  to  prevent  the  escape  of  anything  from  the  package  and  so  con- 
structed as  properly  to  protect  the  contents.  Such  i)ackages  to  be  marked  “Eggs— 
This  side  up,”  and  to  be  transported  outside  of  mail  })ags. 


Fig.  3.— This  picture  shows  a 10-dozen-size  box  of  corrugated  pasteboard.  The  eggs  are  placed  in  four 

layers  of  30  each. 

The  ideal  container  must  be  simple  in  construction^  efficient  in  serv- 
ice;  and  cheap.  Simplicity  of  construction  is  essential  so  that  it 
may  be  assembled  and  packed  or  filled  readily  and  rapidly.  Any 
part  which  is  to  be  opened  should  be  so  marked  or  notched  as  to  indi- 
cate the  part  to  pull  up  or  out.  It  must  bo  efficient  in  service  to 
insure  satisfaction  to  the  shipper  and  to  the  receiver,  and  also  to  pre- 
vent damage  to  other  mail  matter  by  possible  breakage  and  leakage. 
It  must  be  inexpensive  or  it  will  defeat  the  object  to  be  attained, 
namely,  a reduction  of  the  cost  of  handling  between  producer  and 
consumer. 

Trials  of  many  different  styles  and  makes  of  containers  or  cartons 
for  shipping  eggs  by  parcel  post  were  made.  Quite  a number  proved 


SHIPPING  EGGS  BY  PARCEL  POST. 


7 


satisfactory  in  extended  trials.  A few  of  them  are  illustrated  in  the 
following  pages  for  the  purpose  of  showing  in  a general  way  their 
appearance  and  construction.  Any  container  which  meets  the  postal 
requirements  and  which  serves  the  purpose  properly  can  be  used. 


Fig.  4.— This  photograph  shows  a fiber-board  box  fitted  with  corrugated-pasteboard  lining  and  fillers, 
or  partitions,  of  the  same  material.  Each  egg  has  a wrap  of  one-faced  corrugated  pasteboard'.  The 
lining  is  raised  to  show  the  eggs;  it  shows  dark  against  the  lid. 


INFORMATION  RELATIVE  TO  SECURING  CONTAINERS. 


The  experiment  stations  in  the  various  States  have  information  as 
to  containers  for  parcel-post  shipments  of  eggs,  in  consumer-size  lots, 
and  persons  desiring  information  of  this  kind  should  not  address  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  but  should  address  the 
director  of  the  experiment  station  in  their  own  State.  The  following 
list  gives  the  post-office  address  of  each  station : 


Alabama: 

Auburn. 

Tuskegee  Institute. 
Alaska:  Sitka. 

Arizona:  Tucson. 
Arkansas:  Fayetteville. 


California:  Berkeley. 
Colorado:  Fort  Collins. 
Connecticut: 

New  Haven. 
Storrs. 

Delaware:  Newark. 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  594. 


Florida:  Gainesville. 

Georgia:  Experiment. 

Guam:  Guam. 

Hawaii;  Honolulu. 

Idaho:  Moscow. 

Illinois:  Urbana. 

Indiana:  Lafayette. 

Iowa:  Ames. 

Kansas:  Manhattan. 

Kentucky:  Lexington. 

Louisiana:  Baton  Kouge. 

Maine:  Orono. 

Maryland : College  Park. 
Massachusetts:  Amherst. 

Michigan:  East  Lansing. 

Minnesota:  University  Farm,  St.  Paul. 
Mississippi:  Agricultural  College. 
Missouri:  Columbia. 

Montana:  Bozeman. 

Nebraska:  Lincoln. 

Nevada:  Reno. 

New  Hampshire:  Durham. 

New  Jersey:  New  Brunswick. 


New  Mexico:  State  College. 

New  York: 

Geneva. 

Ithaca. 

North  Carolina:  Raleigh. 

North  Dakota:  Agricultural  ('ollege. 
Ohio:  Wooster. 

Oklahoma:  Stillwater. 

Oregon:  Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania:  State  College. 

Porto  Rico:  Mayaguez. 

Rhode  Island:  Kingston. 

South  Carolina:  Clemson  ('ollege. 
South  Dakota:  Brookings. 
Tennessee:  Knoxville. 

Texas:  College  Station. 

Utah:  Logan. 

Vermont:  Burlington. 

Virginia:  Blacksburg. 

Washington:  Pullman. 

West  Virginia:  Morgantown. 
Wisconsin:  Madison. 

Wyoming:  Laramie. 


PACKING  EGGS  FOR  SHIPMENT. 

The  eggs  for  packing,  if  the  trade  requires  it  or  if  it  can  be  done 
without  any  disadvantage,  should  be  assorted  as  to  size  and  color. 
Eggs  irregular  in  shape,  those  which  are  unusually  long  or  thin- 
shelled,  or  which  have  shells  otherwise  defective,  should  be  kept  by 
the  producer  for  home  use,  so  that  breakage  in  transit  may  be  reduced 
as  much  as  possible. 

Regardless  of  the  particular  style  or  design  of  the  container  used, 
each  egg  should  be  wrapped  according  to  parcel-post  requirements 
(see  p.  5),  so  that  it  will  not  shake  about.  Square- block  tissue 
paper,  which  comes  in  packages  of  500  sheets  each,  or  soft  wrapping 
paper,  should  be  used  around  each  egg.  Should  the  eggs  be  able  to 
shake  about  in  the  container,  the  danger  of  breakage  in  handling  is 
increased.  For  packing  of  parcels  exceeding  20  pounds  see  page  6. 

From  the  experimental  shipments  that  have  been  made,  it  is  clear 
that  the  packing  should  be  attended  to  carefully.  A little  practice 
will  enable  the  packer  to  do  his  work  rapidly. 

THE  APPEARANCE  OF  PARCELS. 

Not  only  should  the  eggs  be  of  the  best  appearance  possible,  but 
the  general  appearance  of  the  parcel  should  be  neat  and  attractive. 
A container  badly  stained  from  broken  eggs  should  not  be  used 
again.  Better  a little  less  profit  on  a shipment  of  eggs  because  of 
having  to  use  a new  container  than  a displeased  customer,  who, 
displeased  a few  times,  will  be  no  customer  at  all. 


SHIPPING  EGGS  BY  PARCEL  POST. 


9 


THE  WEIGHT  OF  EGG  PARCELS. 

Average  hens’  eggs  will  weigh  about  pounds  to  the  dozen,  or  2 
ounces  apiece.  The  weight  of  a single  dozen  of  eggs  in  a carton 
properly  packed  and  wrapped  for  mailing  will  run  from  2 to  3 pounds, 
depending  on  the  nature  of  the  particular  container,  the  size  of  the 
eggs,  and  the  packing  and  wrajiping  used.  If  the  container  be  a ver}^ 
light  one  and  the  eggs  small,  the  parcel  may  fall  within  the  2-pound 
limit,  and  the  postage  therefore  within  the  first  and  second  zones, 
or  150-mile  limit,  would  be  6 cents.  But  most  parcels  containing  a 
dozen  eggs  will  exceed  2 pounds  but  will  not  reach  3 ; therefore  the 
postage  on  them  will  be  7 cents  within  the  first  and  second  zones. 
A parcel  containing  2 dozen  eggs  will  add  perhaps  2 cents  to  the 
postage,  though  sometimes  only  1 cent,  depending  on  the  nature  of 
the  container  and  the  packing  and  wrapping. 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  the  larger  the  parcel  (within  the 
size  and  weight  limits)  the  cheaper  is  the  postage,  as  the  first  pound 
of  every  package  costs  5 cents  within  the  first  and  second  zones, 
while  each  additional  pound,  up  to  50,  costs  but  1 cent;  so  that  while 
a 1-pound  parcel  would  cost  5 cents  postage,  a 2-pound  parcel  would 
cost  only  6 cents  or  3 cents  a pound.  A 20-pound  parcel  would 
cost  24  cents,  or  1^  cents  per  pound,  and  a 50-pound  parcel  would 
cost  54  cents,  or  but  1^5  cents  per  pound. 

SHIPPING  EGGS  FOR  HATCHING  PURPOSES. 

In  preparing  for  mailing  eggs  intended  for  hatching  purposes, 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  each  egg  is  wrapped  with 
sufficient  material  to  hold  it  snugly  and  yet  not  too  rigidly  in  its 
compartment.  The  outside  of  the  parcel  should  be  labeled Eggs 
for  hatching.”  Special  attention  should  be  given  these  shipments 
by  all  postal  employees,  particular  care  being  exercised  to  keep  them 
away  from  excessive  heat  or  cold. 

The  person  receiving  eggs  in  this  way  for  hatching  should  place 
them  on  the  small  end  in  bran  or  something  of  the  kind  for  24  hours, 
in  order  that  the  germs  may  thoroughly  settle  before  incubation  is 
started. 

SUPPLIES  FOR  SHIPPERS. 

As  the  postal  regulations  require  that  every  parcel  must  have  on 
it  the  name  and  address  of  the  sender,  preceded  by  the  word  ‘^From,” 
each  person  shipping  eggs  by  parcel  post  will  find  it  convenient  to 
have  a rubber  stamp  similar  to  the  following: 

From 

WiUiam  Smith, 

Rural  Corners,  Pennsylvania. 

The  stamp  and  an  inking  pad  will  cost  about  50  cents. 

42675°— 14 2 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  594. 


• The  postal  regulations  also  require  that  parcels  containing  eggs 
are  to  be  marked  ''Eggs.”  For  this  purpose  a rubber  stamp  having 
letters  one-half  inch  high  and  reading  "Eggs”  should  be  used  to 
stamp  this  word  on  each  side  of  the  parcel.  Thus  the  nature  of  the 
contents  will  be  apparent  no  matter  which  side  happens  to  be  in  view. 

The  sender  will  soon  learn  how  much  postage  each  size  of  parcel 
requires.  Should  he  desire  them,  parcel-post  scales  can  be  secured  at 
reasonable  prices.  There  are  many  times  when  scales  are  needed  in 
the  farm  home,  and  the  parcel-post  type  will  serve  these  other  pur- 
poses also.  They  can  be 
had  for  $2.50  and  weigh  up 
to  20  pounds.  (See  fig. 
5.)  "Union”  scales  hav- 
ing both  a platform  and 
a scoop  attachment  and 
weighing  up  to  200  or  300 
pounds  can  be  had  for  from 
$6  to  $12,  if  desired. 

Under  a subsequent 

heading  entitled  ' ' The 
wrapping  and  addressing 
of  parcels  ” paper  and  twine 
or  cord  for  tying  are  dis- 
cussed. 

Boxes,  wrapping  paper, 
and  twine  should  be 

bought  in  as  large  quan- 
tities as  possible  (say  a 
year’s  supply  at  a time), 
so  that  lower  prices  may 
be  obtained.  With  proper 

Fig.  5.— This  illustration  shows  20-pound  parcel-post  scales,  Organization  it  will  be 

which  will  be  found  quite  convenient  for  many  household  -possible  for  Several  farm- 
purposes  requiring  a small  scale.  ” ...  , . 

ers  to  join  m ordering 

containers  by  the  thousand  and  other  supplies  in  correspondingly 
large  quantities. 

THE  SIZE  OF  PARCELS. 

In  arranging  with  the  customer  as  to  the  size  and  frequency  of 
shipments  it  is  wise  to  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  the 
larger  the  parcel  sent  (i.  e.,  the  more  eggs  sent  in  one  parcel)  the 
cheaper  will  be  the  postage  per  dozen.  This  is  more  fuUy  discussed 
under  the  heading  "The  weight  of  egg  parcels.”  It  would  be  much 
more  economical  for  the  family  that  uses,  say,  four  dozens  a week 
to  have  them  sent  in  a 4-dozen  parcel  once  a week  than  to  have  them 
sent  in  two  2-dozen  parcels  at  different  times  during  the  week;  and 
the  eggs,  if  produced  under  proper  conditions  and  properly  kept. 


SHIPPING  EGGS  BY  PARCEL  POST. 


11 


would  not  deteriorate  to  any  appreciable  extent  in  that  length  of 
time.  The  same  principle  would  hold  good  regardless  of  quantity 
used. 

Considering  the  cost  of  the  container  and  the  postage,  there  wiU  be 
no  economy  in  a consumer  buying  eggs  for  food  by  parcel  post  in 
less  than  2-dozen  lots.  There  may  be  exceptions  to  this  in  the  case 
of  invalids,  in  the  case  of  persons  who  desire  strictly  newly-laid  eggs, 
even  though  they  do  cost  more,  and,  occasionally,  for  other  reasons. 

THE  WRAPPING  AND  ADDRESSING  OF  PARCELS. 

The  appearance  of  the  parcel  depends  largely  upon  the  manner 
in  wliich  it  is  wrapped.  Odds  and  ends  of  paper  and  twine  are  not 
desirable  for  this  purpose.  Every  producer  who  aims  to  make  a 
business  of  shipping  eggs  by  parcel  post  should  procure  a supply 
of  good,  tough  paper  of  the  proper  size  to  wrap  his  parcels,  and  also 
good,  strong,  though  not  too  heavy,  cord  or  twine  that  stretches 
very  little. 

No  matter  what  the  design  of  the  container  there  is  always  danger, 
should  the  parcel  be  subjected  to  excessive  pressure  or  violence  in 
any  form,  that  the  eggs  may  be  broken  and  the  contents  leak  out. 
In  a large  number  of  experiments  it  was  found  that  when  parcels 
were  properly  wrapped  with  good  paper,  even  though  there  were 
quite  a number  of  broken  eggs  in  the  parcel,  in  only  a few  cases  did 
any  leakage  of  the  contents  damage  other  mail  matter. 

It  wiU  be  a simple  matter,  especially  if  there  are  cliildren  in  the 
home  who  can  learn  to  attend  to  this  part  of  the  work,  to  wrap  the 
parcels  both  rapidly  and  neatly.  A little  attention  to  the  best  man- 
ner of  »folding  the  paper  in  completing  the  wrapping  wiU  result  in  a 
securely  and  neatly  covered  package.  The  foregoing  apphes  to  par- 
cels weighing  less  than  20  pounds — parcels  exceeding  20  pounds  need 
not  be  wrapped.  (See  p.  6.) 

To  insure  prompt  delivery  the  address  should  be  plainly  written 
on  the  wrapping  of  the  parcel.  Much  mail  matter  is  delayed  or  alto- 
gether fails  to  reach  its  destination  because  of  incomplete  or  poorly 
written  address. 

INCLOSURES. 

An  inclosure  stating  the  number  of  eggs  and  the  price  may  be  placed 
in  the  parcel,  but  no  message  of  any  kind  may  be  included,  as  that 
would  subject  the  package  to  the  first-class  postage  rate. 

UNPACKING  EGGS  WHEN  RECEIVED. 

The  person  receiving  the  eggs  should  unpack  them  immediately 
to  see  if  any  have  been  broken.  It  might  be  desirable  to  have  in- 
structions printed  on  the  outside  of  the  container,  and  the  following 
are  suggested : 

^‘Please  unpack  and  examine  at  once  to  see  condition  and  to  give 
proper  attention. 


12 


farmers'  bulletin  594. 


Wliether  or  not  this  is  printed  on  tlie  container,  the  shipper  should 
have  a distinct  understanding  with  the  consumer  that  this  is  to  be 
done  with  every  parcel  received,  so  that  information  as  to  any  unsat- 
isfactory condition  may  be  promptly  obtained. 

THE  RETURN  OF  EMPTY  CONTAINERS. 

Many  shippers  will  doubtless  find  it  desirable  and  economical  to 
have  the  customer  save  the  containers  and  return  them  after  a 
sufficient  number  have  accumulated.  Wlien  so  returned  the  postage 
on  empty  cases  still  in  usable  condition  is  less  than  the  cost  of  new 
ones.  The  consumer  should  receive  credit  for  the  postage  required 
to  return  them.  Many  of  the  containers  are  made  in  ^‘knocked- 
down’^  style,  i.  e.,  to  take  apart  and  fold  up  so  that  they  can  be  made 
into  a much  smaller  package  or  parcel.  Containers  which  are  knocked 
down  to  be  returned  should  be  packed  in  such  a way  that  there  will 
be  no  edges  or  points  projecting  without  support  or  protection,  as 
such  projections  are  likely  to  be  broken  or  crushed  in  the  mails. 

The  cost  of  the  container  is  necessarily  included  in  the  price  of  the 
eggs  to  the  consumer.  It  is  therefore  to  the  interest  of  the  consumer 
to  take  proper  care  of  containers  and  to  save  for  return  all  that  are 
in  usable  condition.  Since  the  return  of  containers  will  have  some 
effect  on  the  price  of  the  eggs,  the  proper  spirit  of  thrift  should  cause 
the  consumer  to  take  good  care  of  all  returnable  empties  and  to  send 
them  back  in  accordance  with  whatever  agreement  or  understanding 
may  obtain  between  the  producer  and  himself. 

METHODS  OF  BRINGING  PRODUCER  AND  CONSUMER  TOGETHER. 

One  of  the  big  problems  to  the  average  farmer  is  how  to  secure 
customers  who  desire  eggs  direct  from  the  farm.  In  other  words, 
the  question  is,  ^^How  shall  I come  in  contact  with  the  person  who 
wants  my  product  ? ’ ' 

An  occasional  contact  may  be  secured  through  acquaintance 
in  the  city  or  town  where  a parcel-post  market  is  sought.  Cont£|,ct 
might  also  be  secured  by  a small  advertisement  in  a city  or  town 
paper,  stating  the  number  of  eggs  available  per  week.  In  France 
city  dwellers  make  these  business  arrangements  in  summer  when 
in  the  country  on  their  holiday.  Consumers  who  will  not  take 
trouble  about  these  relatively  small  things  should  not  complain 
of  the  high  cost  of  food  products. 

Additional  contact  ought  to  be  more  easily  obtained  than  the 
original  contact,  for  the  simple  reason  that  if  a producer  supplies 
satisfactory  eggs  the  person  receiving  them  is  almost  sure  to  obtain 
other  customers  for  him  by  speaking  well  of  his  product.  It  might 
be  said  in  this  connection  that  the  reputation  a parcel-post  shipper 
makes  with  his  first  customers  will  very  largely  determine  his  success 
or  failure  in  marketing  by  this  method. 


SHIPPING  EGGS  BY  PARCEL  POST. 


13 


The  matter  of  holding  business  once  secured  and  securing  addi- 
tional business  is  of  considerable  importance.  One  of  the  serious 
drawbacks  of  ordinary  farming  is  the  great  irregularity  of  income 
during  the  year.  The  development  of  a regular  parcel-post  business 
in  eggs  and  the  many  other  products  that  may  be  marketed  by  this 
means  will  increase  the  income  and  distribute  it  somewhat  better 
throughout  the  year.  Once  a customer  has  been  secured  every 
endeavor  should  be  made  to  furnish  strictly  high-grade  goods  and 
to  deal  fairly,  promptly,  and  satisfactorily,  so  that  the  customer  may 
be  retained.  Once  a reputation  is  established  for  products  of  high 
quality  and  for  fair  dealing,  the  holding  of  customers  and  securing 
new  ones  will  be  a comparatively  simple  matter. 

THE  FIXING  OF  FAIR  PRICES. 

As  the  object  of  parcel-post  dealing  is  to  get  somewhat  better 
prices  for  the  producer  and  better  products  at  the  same  price,  or 
the  same  class  of  products  at  lower  prices,  for  the  consumer,  the 
question  of  arriving  at  prices  fair  to  both  is  important.  It  is  also 
difficult. 

It  is  not  likely,  at  least  not  for  some  time  to  come,  that  eggs  will 
be  marketed  so  largely  by  parcel  post  that  the  ordinary  marketing 
quotations  can  not  be  depended  upon  in  arriving  at  prices. 

It  ought  to  be  a comparatively  easy  matter  for  a producer  and  a 
consumer  to  agree  upon  a stipulated  market  quotation  as  the  basis  for 
determining  the  price  to  be  paid.  A consumer  may  desire  5 dozen 
eggs  per  week,  the  price  to  be  an  agreed  upon  number  of  cents  per 
dozen  above  the  wholesale  quotation  for  the  best  grade  of  eggs  on 
the  market  that  week.  The  necessary  relations  in  this  matter  can  be 
maintained  only  by  scrupulous  honesty  and  well-founded  mutual 
trust. 

CONTRACTS  OR  AGREEMENTS  BETWEEN  PRODUCERS  AND  CONSUMERS. 

The  nature  of  the  agreement  between  the  producer  and  the  con- 
sumer, whether  reduced  to  writing  or  not,  should  be  made  to  suit 
the  circumstances  and  must  be  fair  to  both.  Perhaps  the  first  agree- 
ment made  should  be  in  writing;  but  later,  if  mutual  confidence  and 
trust  has  been  thoroughly  established,  the  contract  may  be  verbal. 

The  matter  of  frequency  and  method  of  payment  can  be  arranged 
in  various  ways.  For  the  first  agreement  term,  which  may  be  a year 
or  less,  cash  in  advance  might  be  satisfactory,  until  a definite  system 
of  orders  and  payments  is  established. 

The  agreement  should  specify : 

(1)  The  names  of  the  parties  to  the  agreement. 

(2)  The  length  of  time  during  which  the  agreement  is  to  be  in  force. 

(3)  The  number  of  eggs  to  be  shipped  each  week  during  the  time  the  contract  runs, 
and  also  the  frequency  of  shipment  and  the  number  in  each  shipment. 


14 


FAEMERS^  BULLETIN  594. 

(4)  Price  to  be  paid  during  the  time  of  the  contract,  together  with  the  base  on 
which  the  price  is  fixed. 

(5)  Method  of  adjusting  claims  for  broken  or  bad  eggs. 

(6)  The  consumer  should  open  boxes  properly  (without  cutting  or  tearing),  and 
should  take  proper  care  of  them  and  return  them  by  mail  as  desired  by  the  producer, 

(7)  Frequency  of  payment  and  manner  of  remitting;  postage  paid  on  empties 
returned  to  the  producer  to  be  credited  to  the  consumer  on  next  bill  rendered. 

For  the  reason  that  eggs  are  in  very  abundant  supply  in  the  spring 
season  and  in  very  short  supply  in  the  fall  and  early  winter  season, 
the  contract  should  specify  quantity  to  he  supplied  each  week 
throughout  the  year.  The  producer  can  not  expect  the  consumer 
to  take  all  the  eggs  that  are  to  be  marketed  in  the  season  of  greatest 
production,  nor  can  the  consumer  expect  to  get  as  many  eggs  as  he 
desires  in  the  season  of  lowest  production;  and  these  two  extremes 
should  be  thoroughly  understood  and  specifically  mentioned  m the 
agreement,  so  as  to  have  no  misunderstanding  regarding  them. 

In  the  season  of  short  supply  the  consumer  might  be  willing  to  try 
some  eggs  preserved  in  water  glass  (see  p.  4),  thereby  relieving  the 
situation. 

The  producer  in  making  an  agreement  with  a consumer  should 
undertake  to  stand  good  for  eggs  lost  by  breakage  in  shipping. 
Should  this  provision  in  the  agreement  be  abused  by  any  consumer 
it  might  be  sufficient  reason  to  refuse  to  again  contract  with  that 
consumer,  and  of  course  satisfactory  evidence  of  unusual  breakage 
would  need  to  be  produced,  and  it  might  even  be  necessary  to  locate 
the  cause  of  the  breakage  in  the  mails. 

The  following  is  a suggested  form  of  agreement: 

This  Article  of  Agreement  made  this day  of , 1914,  by  and  between 

John  Doe,  of  Doeville,  Doe  County,  Va.,  party  of  the  first  part,  and  Richard  Roe, 
of  298  Bahama  Avenue,  Washington,  D.  C.,  party  of  the  second  part, 

WiTNESSETH,  That  for  a price  of cents  ( ) per  dozen  above  the  wholesale 

price  for  best  eggs  quoted  in  the  “Blankville  News”  on  Tuesday  of  each  week,  the 
party  of  the  first  part  agrees  to  supply  the  party  of  the  second  part  four  (4)  dozens  of 
eggs  weekly  for  the  remainder  of  the  calendar  year  1914,  each  weekly  consignment  to 
be  shipped  in  one  parcel. 

Payments  are  to  be  made  every  four  weeks  on  bill  rendered  by  party  of  the  first 
part  to  party  of  the  second  part  after  making  proper  allowance  for  eggs  broken  beyond 
use  and  for  eggs  otherwise  unusable.  The  party  of  the  second  part  is  to  receive 
credit  for  postage  on  empties  returned  and  agrees  to  take  proper  care  of  containers, 
open  them  properly  (without  cutting  or  tearing),  and  to  return  them  to  the  party  of 
the  first  part  as  party  of  the  first  part  may  desire. 

If  party  of  the  first  part  require  it,  party  of  the  second  part  agrees  to  return  con- 
tainers with  broken  eggs  in  place  if  he  claims  they  are  damaged  beyond  use. 

PARCEL  POST  ZONES. 

The  United  States  is  divided  into  “ units, each  one  of  which  is 
numbered,  as  illustrated  by  the  accompanying  section  of  map.  (See 
fig.  6.)  The  center  of  each  unit  constitutes  the  zone’s  center  for  all 
post  offices  within  that  unit.  The  first  zone  consists  of  any  given 


SHIPPING  EGGS  BY  PARCEL  POST. 


15 


Fig,  6.— This  illustration  shows  a section  of  Parcel  Post  Zone  Map  for  Washington,  D,  C.,  and  all  other 

post-ofllces  in  Unit  1071. 


16 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  594. 


unit  together  with  all  the  adjouiiiig  units,  even  though  they  hut 
touch  at  the  corner.  The  second  zone  embraces  all  those  units 
within  a radius  of  150  miles  from  the  center  of  any  given  unit,  and 
the  whole  of  any  unit,  any  part  of  which  is  touched  by  this  150-mile 
boundary  line,  is  considered  entirely  within  that  zone. 

There  is  a separate  zone  map  for  each  unit.  The  accompanymg 
illustration  shows  a section  of  the  map  for  the  unit  in  which  Washing- 
ton is  located.  The  second  circle  shows  the  nominal  boundary  of 
zone  2;  but  owing  to  the  fact  that  all  units  which  are  touched  by 
this  boundary  line  fall  entirely  within  the  second  zone,  the  units 
which  are  bounded  by  the  heavy  line  (outside  the  second  curved  line) 
are  entirely  within  zone  2.  This  principle  applies  to  all  other  zones; 
that  is,  any  unit  which  is  touched  at  any  point  by  the  boundar}^  of 
a given  zone  lies  wholly  within  that  given  zone  and  is  so  considered 
for  the  purposes  of  the  parcel-post  service. 

Particular  description  is  here  given  of  the  first  and  second  zones 
because  of  the  fact  that  the  great  bulk  of  the  shipping  of  farm  prod- 
ucts by  parcel  post  is  likely  to  be  done  within  these  zones.  Tlie  rate 
can  be  ascertained  readily  from  the  accompanymg  tables. 


Local  parcel  post  rates. 


Pounds, 

Postage. 

Pounds. 

Postage. 

Pounds. 

Postage. 

Pounds. 

Postage. 

Pounds. 

Postage. 

1 

Cents. 

5 

11 

Cents. 

10 

21 

Cents. 

15 

31 

Cents. 

20 

41 

Cents. 

25 

2 

6 

12 

11 

22 

16 

32 

21 

42 

26 

3 

6 

13 

11 

23 

16 

33 

21 

43 

26 

4 

7 

14 

12 

24 

17 

34 

22 

44 

27 

5 

7 

15 

12 

25 

17 

35 

22 

45 

27 

6 

8 

16 

13 

26 

18 

36 

23 

46 

28 

7 

8 

17 

13 

27 

18 

37 

23 

47 

28 

8 

9 

18 

14 

28 

19 

38 

24 

48 

29 

9 

9 

19 

14 

29 

19 

39 

24 

49 

29 

10 

10 

20 

15 

30 

20 

40 

25 

50 

30 

Fifty  pounds  is  the  weight  limit  for  local  delivery.  These  rates  are 
5 cents  for  the  first  pound  and  1 cent  additional  for  each  2 pounds  or 
fraction  thereof;  they  apply  to  any  parcel-post  matter  that  does  not 
go  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  mailing  office. 


First  and  second  zone  parcel  post  rates. 


Pounds. 

Postage. 

Pounds. 

Postage. 

Pounds. 

Postage. 

Pounds. 

Postage. 

Pounds. 

Postage. 

1 

Cents. 

5 

11 

Cents. 

15 

21 

Cents. 

25 

31 

Cents. 

35 

41 

Cents. 

45 

2 

6 

12 

16 

22 

26 

32 

36 

42 

46 

3 

7 

13 

17 

23 

27 

33 

37 

43 

47 

4 

8 

14 

18 

24 

28 

34 

38 

44 

48 

5 

9 

15 

19 

25 

29 

35 

39 

45 

49 

6 

10 

16 

20 

26 

30 

36 

40 

46 

50 

7 

11 

17 

21 

27 

31 

37 

41 

47 

51 

8 

12 

18 

22 

28 

32 

38 

42 

48 

52 

9 

13 

19 

23 

29 

33 

39 

43 

49 

53 

10 

14 

20 

24 

30 

34 

40 

44 

50 

54 

SHIPPING  EGGS  BY  PARCEL  POST. 


17 


The  weight  limit  within  the  first  and  second  zones  is  50  pounds. 
These  rates  appl}^  to  all  points  within  the  first  and  second  zones,  there 
l)eing  no  difTerence  in  rates  between  these  two  zones.  A simple  rule 
to  determine  the  postage  on  any  parcel  not  going  beyond  the  second 
zone  is  to  add  4 to  the  number  of  pounds,  and  the  resulting  number 
is  the  cents’  postage  required.  Example:  A parcel  weighs  13  pounds 
and  11  ounces;  this  will  require  postage  on  14  pounds  (as  any  frac- 
tion of  a pound  is  considered  a full  pound) ; 14  + 4 = 18  cents  postage. 

Tlie  weight  limit  for  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth  zones  is  20  pounds.  Any  information  desired  as  to  rates, 
zones,  and  the  like  can  be  obtained  from  any  post  ofTice. 

MEASUREMENT  LIMITS  FOR  PARCEL-POST  MAIL  MATTER. 

In  addition  to  the  weight  limits  shown  in  connection  with  the 
foregoing  postage  tables,  there  is  a measurement  limit,  which  is  the 
same  for  all  zones.  This  limit  is  that  the  girth  (measurement  around) 
and  the  length  added  must  not  exceed  72  inches.  For  example,  a 
parcel  10  inches  square  (40  inches  around)  and  32  inches  long  would 
be  just  up  to  the  limit.  So  also  would  a parcel  12  inches  square  (48 
inches  around)  and  24  inches  long.  A parcel  cubical  in  shape  and 
14  inches  in  each  dimension  would  measure  56  inches  around,  and  to 
this  would  be  added  1 4 inches  for  length,  making  70  inches,  or  2 inches 
less  than  the  limit. 

THE  PRACTICABILITY  AND  UTILITY  OF  THE  PARCEL  POST  IN  EGG  MARKETING. 

Under  the  present  method  the  general  farmer,  or  in  most  cases  the 
wife,  sells  the  surplus  eggs  to  the  local  storekeeper,  taking  their  value 
out  in  trade.  The  parcel  post  offers  an  opportunity  for  a cash  outlet 
at  better  prices.  It  should  prove  a valuable  help,  especially  to  those 
farms  that  are  located  unfavorably  as  regards  a consuming  market. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  shipping  by  parcel  post  has  been  demon- 
strated as  a practical  proposition  when  properly  conducted. 

To  send  a 2-dozen-size  parcel  would  cost  about  as  foUows:  For 
container  and  wrapping,  8 cents;  for  postage,  9 cents — or  a total  of 
1 7 cents,  which  would  be  8J  cents  a dozen  marketing  cost.  Market- 
ing a 5-dozen  parcel  would  cost  about  13  cents  for  container  and 
wrapping  and  14  cents  postage,  or  a total  of  27  cents;  a lO-dozen  lot 
would  cost  about  22  cents  for  container  and  wTapping  and  25  cents 
postage,  or  a total  of  47  cents. 

The  postage  rates  here  used  are  those  within  the  first  and  second 
zones.  The  rates  to  the  third  and  farther  zones  are  higher,  and  the 
advantages  of  marketing  by  parcel  post  consequently  less. 

The  foregoing  figures  include  the  cost  of  a new  container  each  time. 
The  experiments  show  that  containers  from  the  4-dozen  size  up  will 
stand  on  an  average  two  to  four  trips  quite  satisfactorily.  Con- 


18 


FAKMEKS^  BULLETIN  504. 


tainers  for  smaller  lots  will  stand  on  an  average  from  three  to  five 
trips.  As  the  postage  cost  of  returning  containers  is  considerably 
less  than  the  price  of  new  ones,  the  average  expense  for  containers 
can  be  materially  reduced  from  the  figures  quoted. 

DISADVANTAGES  OR  DIFFICULTIES  IN  MARKETING  EGGS  BY  PARCEL  POST. 

If  it  is  kept  in  mind  that  it  takes  a few  days  for  eggs  to  reach  the 
consumer,  a regular  supply  of  eggs  can  be  had  for  use  at  all  times. 
The  possibility  of  broken  eggs  and  the  consequent  adjustment  of  pay- 
ment may  seem  to  be  a disadvantage,  but  if  properly  provided  for 
in  the  agreement  (see  p.  14)  it  need  not  be.  The  matter  of  arriving 
at  equitable  prices  may  seem  to  be  difficult,  but  this  need  not  be  a 
drawback.  The  matter  of  fixing  fair  prices  is  discussed  on  page  13. 

Some  farmers  may  be  so  situated  that  they  already  have  a satis- 
factory market  for  their  eggs.  Others  may  desire  to  have  a parcel- 
post  market  during  a part  of  the  year,  but  may  dispose  of  them  other- 
wise during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  The  local  market  may  also  at 
times  afford  a more  satisfactory  price  than  that  received  under  a 
parcel-post  selling  agreement.  There  may  also  bo  producers  of  large 
quantities  of  eggs  who  find  express  transportation  cheaper  than  parcel 
post. 

The  necessity  of  securing  proper  containers  and  of  properly  wrap- 
ping and  packing  the  eggs  for  mailing,  as  well  as  the  care  that  needs 
to  be  exercised  in  shipping  only  strictly  first-class  eggs,  may  seem  to 
some  to  be  both  disadvantageous  and  difficult,  but  if  a parcel-post 
market  is  to  be  developed,  it  will  require  care  and  attention  to  get 
it  properly  established  and  to  keep  it  going  successfully. 

DIRECT  MARKETING  OF  LARGER  QUANTITIES  OF  EGGS  THAN  PRIVATE 

FAMILIES  REQUIRE. 

The  foregoing  discussion  applies  especially  to  shipments  of  eggs  for 
family  consumption.  It  is  quite  likely  that  many  producers  will 
desire  a larger  outlet  than  is  afforded  by  private  families.  These  may 
be  shipped  in  containers  such  as  described  by  postal  regulations. 
(See  p.  6.)  They  must  come  within  the  weight  and  measurement 
limits,  however.  The  present  30-dozen  commercial  case  exceeds 
the  weight  and  measurement  limits  and  would  have  to  be  forwarded 
by  express.  The  express  companies  are  now  paying  special  attention 
to  small  shipments  of  food  products,  and  furnish  prompt  and  efficient 
service. 

Should  any  individual  farmer  not  have  enough  eggs  to  ship  alone, 
a good  method  would  be  to  have  a number  of  neighboring  farmers 
club  together  for  the  purpose  of  shipping  eggs  and  secure  a purchaser 
in  the  person  of  an  hotel,  restaurant,  or  lunch-room  proprietor,  or  a 


SHIPPING  EGGS  BY  PARCEL  POST. 


19 


retail  grocer  in  some  town  or  city.  The  eggs  from  each  farm  should 
be  packed  in  1-dozen  size  cartons  or  fillers,  which  would  take  the  place 
of  the  ordinary  filler  of  the  standard  30-dozen  size  egg  case.  These 
cartons  should  have  stamped  on  them  the  name  and  address  of  the 
producer;  or,  instead  of  the  name  and  address,  a number  could  be 
assigned  to  each  farm  for  purposes  of  identification,  and  each  carton 
should  be  sealed  so  that  any  complaint  in  regard  to  quality  can  be 
traced  back  to  the  individual  producer.  This  is  necessary  in  order 
to  protect  members  of  the  club  from  complaints  of  delinquency  not 
justly  attributable  to  them.  Further  information  will  be  given  by 
the  Office  of  Markets  to  any  group  of  farmers  desiring  to  organize  a 
cooperative  egg  club. 

Shipping  by  express  presupposes  that  the  producers  concerned  are 
within  reasonable  distance  of  express  service,  otherwise  the  expense 
of  transporting  the  eggs  to  the  express  office  might  be  prohibitive. 

It  is  hoped  that  these  methods  may  enable  the  producer  to  realize 
better  prices,  and  that  at  the  same  time  the  consumer  will  secure  a 
fresher  product.  Eggs  handled  and  shipped  as  described  in  these 
pages  will  be  fresher  and  in  better  condition  than  ordinary  country- 
store  or  huckster-collected  eggs. 

The  average  farmer  pays  scant  attention  to  egg  and  poultry  pro- 
duction, usually  leaving  matters  relating  thereto  to  his  wife.  He  should 
not  consider  them  beneath  his  notice.  Properly  managed,  this 
branch  of  farm  industry  may  prove  quite  profitable.  Indeed,  it  is 
not  unlikely  that  a careful  keeping  of  the  cost  of  producing  corn  on 
many  farms  would  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  family  treasury 
had  profited  more  by  the  activities  of  the  hen  than  by  raising  corn. 

OPPORTUNITY  OF  EXTENSION  OF  PARCEL  POST  MARKETING  TO  OTHER 

PRODUCTS. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  once  having  secured  a parcel-post  market 
for  eggs,  many  farmers  having  other  commodities  not  readily  salable 
at  home  may  open  up  markets  for  them  in  the  same  way.  Methods 
of  arriving  at  prices  would  be  the  same,  the  producer  advising  the 
consumer  as  to  the  commodities — quantity  and  price.  By  this  means 
a market  may  be  found  for  many  products  which  are  not  now  being 
marketed,  mainly  for  the  reason  that  they  are  in  the  nature  of  by- 
products or  small  surpluses  over  the  family’s  need  which  do  not  justify 
a special  trip  to  market. 

In  addition  to  such  things  as  may  be  by-products  or  surpluses  over 
the  family’s  need,  there  is  quite  a field  of  opportunity  open  for  develop- 
ment in  making  a special  effort  to  produce  such  things  as  town  or  city 
residents  are  anxious  to  obtain,  and  by  proper  attention  quite  a sup- 
plemental income  could  be  built  up  by  developing  such  business. 


20 


l^ARMEKS^  BULLETIN  5tM. 


SUMMARY. 

( 1)  In  the  experiments  conducted  in  this  study  yGOfJ  dozens,  ( 
9,131  eggs,  were  sent  through  the  mails  in  4G6  shipments  of  from  1 i 
10  dozens  each.  The  total  breakage  was  327  eggs;  of  these,  118  wei 
only  cracked  or  slightly  broken  and  were  usable,  and  209  (or  2.3  pr 
cent)  were  broken  beyond  use.  Ninety-one  eggs  were  broken  b 
cause  the  parcels  containing  them  were  handled  contrary  to  post  i 
rules  and  regulations.  Subtracting  these,  the  loss  was  only  1.3  p * 
cent.  This  shows  the  possibility  of  shipping  eggs  by  parcel  post  wit 
small  loss,  and  indicates  that  eggs  may  be  so  shipped  with  safety 
existing  postal  regulations  are  observed. 

(2 ) Care  should  be  exercised  in  the  production  of  eggs  so  that  the^s 
will  be  of  as  good  quality  as  possible  to  begin  with.  The  hens  should 
be  provided  with  proper  quarters  and  fed  on  clean,  wholesome  feed. 
The  production  of  nonfertile  eggs  reduces  the  losses  materially.  After 
gathering,  the  eggs  should  be  kept  carefully  in  the  coolest  and  best 
ventilated  place  available. 

(3)  Trials  of  many  styles  and  makes  of  containers  were  made; 
quite  a number  proved  satisfactory.  The  addresses  of  manufactur- 
ers of  containers  can  be  obtained  from  the  agricultural  experimei  ^ 
stations  in  the  several  States. 

(4)  In  selecting  eggs  for  shippmg  by  mail,  thin-shelled  and  uj. 
usually  long  or  irregular-shaped  eggs  should  not  be  used.  Each  eg  »• 
should  be  wrapped  in  sufficient  paper  to  hold  it  snugly  in  its  own  ind 
vidual  compartment  in  the  container.  The  container  should  be  pro]  - 
erly  closed  and  carefully  wrapped  with  good,  tough  wrapping  pap(T 
and  strong  twine.  The  address  should  be  plainly  written  to  insure 
prompt  delivery  on  arrival.  The  postal  regulations  require  the  name 
and  address  of  the  sender  on  the  parcel  also. 

(5)  If  attention  is  given  to  the  necessary  details,  as  indicated  ii 
this  bulletin,  eggs  can  be  shipped  by  parcel  post  to  the  advantage  o*’ 
the  farmer.  This  method  of  marketing  affords  a means  of  increasim 
the  fresh-egg  business  to  the  benefit  of  both  the  producer  and  the  con- 
sumer, by  marketing  direct  while  the  eggs  are  still  in  fresh  condition. 

(G)  Farmers  located  out  of  reach  of  a satisfactory  market  or  of  the 
usual  means  of  transportation  can  find  in  the  parcel  post  a read} 
means  of  getting  their  eggs  direct  to  a consuming  market  promptly 
and  at  prices  that  wiU  justify  the  additional  trouble  involved  in  pack 
iiig  for  mailing. 

o 


AVASHINGTON  : GOVERNMSJNT  printing  office  : 1914 


U.S.DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Entomology,  L.  O.  Howard,  Chief. 
June  15,  1914. 


i^RSENATE  OF  LEAD  AS  AN  INSECTICIDE  AGAINST  THE  TO- 
BACCO HORNWORMS  IN  THE  DARK-TOBACCO  DISTRICT. 

By  A.  C.  Morgan  and  D.  C.  Barman, 

Entomological  Assistants,  Southern  Field  Crop  Insect  Investigations. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

In  the  dark-tobacco  districts  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  tobacco 
hornworms  {PJdegethontius  quinquemaculata  Haw.  and  P.  sexta  Joh.) 
ire  the  ever-present  and  most  serious  problem  of  the  tobacco 
^ower.  Ten  to  twelve 
vears  ago,  when  labor  was 
)lentiful,  cheap,  and  effi- 
ient,  “hand  worming”  was 
'ound  to  be  economical  and 
‘ffective  in  combating  this 
*est.  However,  during  the 
ast  six  or  eight  years  hand 
forming  has  become  too 
ostly,  because  of  the  great 
scarcity  and  inefficiency  of 
labor,  and  the  growers  have 
'•een  forced  to  employ  an 

nsecticide.  At  the  time  insecticides  were  first  used  Paris  green  was 
)und  to  be  the  safest  and  most  efficient.  Nevertheless,  there  has 
•dways  been  complaint  of  frequent  serious  burning  of  tobacco  as  a 
result  of  its  use.  To  find  a safe  and  effective  insecticide  has  been 
me  of  the  main  lines  of  investigation  during  the  past  five  years. 
..rsenate  of  lead  (diplumbic)  has  been  found  to  meet  the  requirements. 

NECESSITY  AND  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  USE  OF  AN  INSECTICIDE. 

The  effect  of  the  scarcity  of  labor  in  bringing  about  the  use  of 
n insecticide  upon  tobacco  has  already  been  explained.  In  addi- 
uon  to  this  necessity  of  using  a poison,  the  much  greater  efficiency 

Note.— This  bulletin  is  intended  to  assist  the  tobacco  growws  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  and  the 
adjoining  States  in  combating  a troublesome  pest. 

42497“— Bull.  595—14 


Fig.  1.— Map  showing  distribution  of  the  tobacCJhornworms 
in  the  United  States. 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  595. 


of  a good  application  of  an  insecticide  is  another  strong  argument 
in  its  favor.  Hand  worming,  even  of  the  best,  has  many  objections; 
for  instance,  eggs  are  not  picked  off,  many  small  worms  are  over- 
looked, and,  lastly,  during  the  hot  hours  of  the  day  large  worms 
crawl  down  into  the  ruffles’’  near  the  bases  of  the  leaves,  and 
a considerable  number  are  thus  overlooked.  On  the  other  hand, 
a thorough  application  of  an  insecticide  will  kill  practically  every 
hornworm — except  those  very  nearly  full  grown — within  two  or 
three  days,  and  will  also  continue  to  kill  the  young  worms  that 
hatch  several  days  after  the  application.  In  short,  hand  picking  has 
only  an  immediate  effect  in  lessening  the  worms,  whereas  the  applica- 
tion of  an  insecticide  usually  continues  to  kill  over  a period  of  several 
days.  Cheapness  is  another  point  very  greatly  in  favor  of  an  insec- 
ticide as  compared  with  hand  picking.  The  cost  of  keeping  an  acre 
of  tobacco  hand  wormed  in  a year  when  worms  are  plentiful  is 
variously  estimated  at  from  $6  to  $10.  A like  number  of  worms  can 
be  killed  with  Paris  green  at  a cost  of  not  more  than  $2  per  acre,  and 
with  arsenate  of  lead  at  a cost  of  from  $3  to  $5  per  acre. 

INJURY  jTO  TOBACCO  BY  THE  USE  OF  PARIS  GREEN. 

Although  Paris  green  has  been  in  general  use  upon  tobacco  in 
many  locahtiesi  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  for  more  than  a decade, 
yet,  on  account  of  its  very  frequent  serious  injury  to  tobacco,  many 
growers  use  it  only  after  it  becomes  too  costly  to  keep  the  worms 
off  the  tobacco  by  hand  picking.  Occasionally  dosages  of  2 and  even 
2J  pounds  are  applied  without  visible  injury.  On  the  other  hand, 
unfavorable  weather  conditions  may  cause  dosages  of  1 to  IJ  pounds 
to  burn  seriously.  In  1912  several  fields  in  the  vicinity  of  Clarks- 
ville, Tenn.,  were  injured  in  amounts  varying  from  10  to  25  per  cent 
of  the  gross  value  of  the  crop.  The  usual  loss,  however,  is  not  greatei 
than  4 or  5 per  cent. 

Paris  green  injures  tobacco  in  two  ways:  First,  by  causing  dead, 
burned  areas  upon  the  leaves,  where  the  powder  has  been  collected 
by  the  dews  or  washed  down  by  the  rains;  second,  by  weakening 
the  leaf  at  the  stalk.  Light  rains  wash  the  insecticide  into  the  axils 
of  the  leaves,  and  the  result  is  that  many  leaves  drop  off  before 
cutting  time  or  become  so  weakened  that  they  drop  off  when  the 
plant  is  cut.  Although  such  leaves  are  not  a total  loss,  for  they  are 
‘collected  and  cured,  yet  they  are  a partial  loss,  for  they  lack  weight 
and  elasticity. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  USE  OF  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD. 

Arsenate  of  lead  causes  none  of  the  injury  just  mentioned^  Ex- 
periments performed  under  the  direction  of  the  senior  writer  show 
that  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  put  on  a fresh  sucker  wound 


ARSENATE  OF  LEAD  FOR  TOBACCO  HORNWORMS. 


3 


in  large  quantities  without  causing  any  noticeable  injury,  and  that 
when  applied  to  a torn  or  bruised  leaf  it  produces  no  injury.  Paris 
green  can  not  be  applied  to  tobacco  in  the  '^graining”  stage  (i.  e., 
when  nearly  ripe)  in  sufficient  quantities  to  do  good  insecticidal  work 
without  too  gTave  danger  of  burning  the  plant.  Arsenate  of  lead,  on 
the  other  hand,  can  be  safely  applied  to  tobacco  in  the  graining’’ 
stage  in  quantities  sufficient  to  produce  satisfactory  insecticidal 
results.  Furthermore,  arsenate  of  lead  will  cause  no  irritation  to  the 
operator  as  will  Paris  green;  in  fact,  thus  far  it  has  produced  no 
noticeable  injurious  effects  upon  the  operators. 

RESULTS  THAT  HAVE  BEEN  OBTAINED  FROM  THE  USE  OF  ARSENATE 

OF  LEAD. 

APPLICATIONS  IN  FAIR  WEATHER. 

On  August  24,  1910,  Paris  green  was  applied  to  a plat  of  tobacco 
at  the  rate  of  IJ  pounds  per  acre.  On  the  third  day  after  the  appli- 
cation 95  per  cent  of  the  worms  were  dead.  However,  on  the 
fifth  day  after  the  application  numbers  of  small  worms  were  seen 
upon  the  tobacco,  which  indicated  that  the  dosage  was  losing  its 
effect.  On  August  25,  1910,  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  was  applied^ 
in  the  same  field,  to  one  plat  at  the  rate  of  5 pounds  per  acre  and  to 
another  plat  at  the  rate  of  SJ  pounds  per  acre.  On  the  fourth  day 
after  the  application  about  99  per  cent  of  the  worms  had  been  killed 
by  the  5-pound  dosage  and  about  89  per  cent  by  the  SJ-pound 
dosage.  Both  dosages  of  lead  arsenate  continued  to  kill  worms  for 
several  days  after  the  Paris  green  had  lost  its  effect. 

The  foregoing  applications  were  made  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions;  that  is,  while  dew  was  upon  the  plants i and  while  there 
was  no  breeze.  The  tobacco  was  about  two- thirds  grown. 

On  August  21,  1911,  a dosage  of  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of 
4f  pounds  per  acre  was  applied  during  a breeze.  At  the  expiration 
of  four  days  only  78  per  cent  of  the  worms  were  dead.  On  the  same 
date  and  under  the  same  conditions  an  application  of  Paris  green 
at  the  rate  of  If  pounds  per  acre  killed  only  54  per  cent  of  the  worms 
in  four  days.  These  experiments  emphasize  the  necessity  of  making 
the  application  of  an  insecticide  when  there  is  very  little  breeze, 

APPLICATIONS  IN  RAINY  WEATHER. 

On  August  28,  1911,  arsenate  of  lead  was  applied  about  7 a.  m.  to 
two  plats  of  tobacco  at  the  rates  of  5 pounds  and  4 pounds  per  acre, 
respectively,  and  Paris  green  was  applied  to  the  check  plat  at  the  rate 
of  2J  pounds  per  acre.  The  same  day  between  11  a.  m.  and  2 p.  m. 
about  one- third  of  an  inch  of  rain  fell  in  dashing  showers.  On  the 
second  day  after  the  application  91  per  cent  of  the  worms  had  been 
killed  by  the  5-pound  dosage  of  arsenate  of  lead,  83  per  cent  by  the 


4 


FAEMERS^  BULLETIN  595. 


4-pound  dosage  of  arsenate  of  lead,  and  only  66  per  cent  by  the  2^- 
pound  dosage  of  Paris  green.  On  the  fourth  day  after  the  applica- 
tion the  number  of  worms  on  the  5-pound  dosage  arsenate-of-lead 
plat  was  still  further  reduced.  On  the  other  hand,  the  worms  had 
increased  in  numbers  upon  the  4-pound  dosage  arsenate-of-lead  plat 
and  on  the  Paris-green  plat.  These  results  indicate  that  arsenate 
of  lead  can  be  made  effective  under  conditions  under  which  Paris 
green  is  practically  a failure. 

EXPERIMENTAL  ACRE  AT  CLARKSVILLE,  TENN. 

During  the  summer  of  1913  an  experimental  acre  of  tobacco  at 
Clarksville,  Tenn.,  was  kept  free  of  worms  by  the  use  of  powdered 
arsenate  of  lead  from  the  time  worms  appeared  in  destructive  num- 
bers until  worms  ceased  to  appear.  Four  applications  were  made, 
usmg  a total  of  12^  pounds,  an  average  of  a little  more  than  3 pounds 
per  dosage.  However,  the  first  dosage  was  too  light,  only  2 J pounds, 
and  had  to  be  repeated.  Had  the  first  dosage  been  at  the  rate  of 
about  4 pounds  per  acre,  undoubtedly  two  more  dosages  of  about  3J 
pounds  per  acre  would  have  been  sufficient  to  do  the  work  accom- 
plished by  the  four  applications.  The  total  cost  of  the  arsenate  of 
lead  and  labor  (assuming  the  arsenate  of  lead  to  retail  at  25  cents 
per  pound)  was  only  $3.86,  an  average  cost  of  77  cents  per  week  for 
the  five  weeks  over  which  the  dosages  remained  effective. 

The  first  dosage  was  applied  while  the  worms  were  small,  and  the 
repetition  of  the  dosages  at  intervals  of  about  10  days  prevented  the 
growth  of  large  worms.  No  hand  worming  was  done  upon  this 
acre  and  no  tobacco  was  injured  either  by  the  worms  or  by  the  ar- 
senate of  lead,  t 

THE  4.ACRE  FIELD  AT  PEMBROKE,  KY. 

On  August  12,  1913,  4 acres  of  large  tobacco  upon  the  farm  of  Mr. 
K.  Y.  Pendleton,  at  Pembroke,  Ky.,  were  given  an  application  of  5^ 
pounds  per  acre  of  powdered  arsenate  of  lead.  At  the  time  of  the 
application  the  worms  averaged  two  per  plant.  On  August  14,  or 
two  days  later,  only  four  live  worms  were  found  on  the  entire  field. 
The  examination  was  made  by  walking  across  the  field  in  opposite 
directions  and  examining  numerous  plants . There  was  no  injury  to  the 
tobacco  from  poison  bum.  No  more  poison  was  applied  to  this  field 
and  practically  no  hand  worming  was  necessary  during  the  remainder 
of  the  season.  This  very  remarkable  result  is  explained  in  part  by 
the  fact  that  very  little  rain  fell  during  August,  and  by  the  fact  that 
comparatively  few  eggs  were  laid  upon  this  tobacco  after  the  middle 
of  August.  If  worms  had  been  numerous  during  the  latter  part  of 
August  and  the  weather  rainy,  undoubtedly  another  application 
would  have  been  required. 


AKSENATE  OF  LEAD  FOE  TOBACCO  HOENWOEMS. 


5 


The  results  upon  this  field  emphasize  the  fact  that  a clean  sweep 
of  the  tobacco  worms  can  be  made  with  arsenate  of  lead  without 
danger  of  burning  the  tobacco.  The  tobacco  in  this  field  was  well 
advanced  and  at  a stage  in  which  Paris-green  burn  was  very  likely 
to  occur. 


HOW  TO  APPLY  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD  TO  TOBACCO. 

Paris  green  is  generally  applied  to  tobacco  by  means  of  a dust 
gun  and  without  the  admixture  of  a carrier.  On  the  other  hand, 
arsenate  of  lead  must  be  mixed  with  a carrier  in  order  to  secure  an 
even  and  thorough  distribution.  Several  carriers  have  been  tested 
with  this  insecticide.  Finely  sifted  air-slaked  lime  did  not  dust 
evenly.  Poad  dust  and  land  plaster  proved  to  be  too  heavy.  The 
best  results  were  obtained  with  finely  sifted,  freshly  burned  wood 
ashes.  At  least  an  equal  bulk  of  the  wood  ashes  should  be  used. 
Mix  the  arsenate  of  lead  and  ashes  very  thoroughly  and  apply  while 
there  is  dew  upon  the  tobacco  and  when  there  is  no  breeze.  Even  if 
very  dry  and  finely  sifted  ashes  are  used,  unsatisfactory  results  will 
be  obtained  unless  the  application  is  made  with  a powerful  dust  gun. 
The  hand-power  dust  guns  now  in  general  use  do  not  furnish  suffi- 
cient power  to  make  anythiug  like  a satisfactory  and  effective  appli- 
cation. Special  guns  that  will  perform  satisfactory  work  are  gradu- 
ally coming  on  the  market.  The  new  guns  have  a fan  with  a diame- 
ter of  8 inches,  whereas  the  old  guns  have  a fan  diameter  of  only  6 
inches.  The  new  guns  have  also  an  auxiliary  dust  chamber,  which 
is  very  essential,  because  the  dust  containers  of  the  old  guns  are  so 
small  that  they  have  to  be  refilled  five  or  six  times  for  each  acre 
dusted.  Two  refillings  of  the  new  guns  will  be  sufficient  for  dusting 
an  acre. 

To  secure  the  best  results,  dust  the  tobacco  when  dew  is  upon  the  . 
plants  and  when  there  is  no  breeze.  The  use  of  a carrier  that  does 
not  dust  evenly,  the  application  of  the  insecticide  when  there  is  too 
much  breeze,  and  the  use  of  too  small  a dust  gun  are  all  certain  to 
give  unsatisfactory  results.  Avoid  these  mistakes,  and  satisfactory 
results  wOl  be  secured. 

Thoroughness  of  application  can  not  be  too  strongly  recommended. 
When  tobacco  worms  are  numerous  a poor  application  of  an  insecti- 
cide wDl  miss  worms  enough  to  ruin  in  two  days  more  than  enough 
tobacco  to  pay  for  the  whole  application.  Make  the  application 
thorough. 

THE  GRADE  OF  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD  THAT  SHOULD  BE  USED. 

Arsenates  of  lead  may  be  broadly  divided  into  two  forms,  tri- 
plumbic  and  diplumb ic.  Theoretically  the  triplumb ic  form  may 
contain  25.58  per  cent  of  arsenic  oxid,  while  the  diplumbic  may 


6 


FABMERS^  BULLETIN  596. 


contain  33.15  per  cent  of  arsenic  oxid.  Experiments  have  shown 
that  the  triplumbic  form  is  too  slow  in  its  insecticidal  action  to 
justify  its  use  against  tobacco  hornworms.  The  diplumhic  form  is 
the  one  that  should  be  used.  In  order  to  he  sure  of  receiving  the 
diplumhic  form,  demand  that  the  manufacturer  and  dealer  guarantee 
that  the  arsenate  of  lead  you  huy  contains  at  least  SO  per  cent  of  arsenic 
oxid  {As^O^  in  which  not  more  than  1 per  cent  is  free  or  water-sol- 
uhle.  This  grade  was  the  one  used  in  all  the  experiments  men- 
tioned in  this  bulletin.  It  is  necessary  to  have  a low  percentage  of 
free,  or  water-soluble,  arsenic  in  order  to  insure  against  burning  the 
tobacco. 

WHEN  TO  APPLY  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD. 

The  first  application  of  arsenate  of  lead  should  be  made  when 
tobacco  worms  become  too  numerous  to  be  kept  off  tobacco  by  the 
hand-pickmg  that  is  usually  done  while  hoeing,  suckering,  or  topping 
tobacco.  In  som^  years  a second  and  even  a third  application  may 
be  necessary.  The  time  for  making  these  applications  wiQ  be  indi- 
cated by  the  nunfbers  of  eggs  and  young  worms  appearing  on  the 
tobacco.  For  further  discussion  of  this  heading  see  figure  2. 

DOSAGE  OF  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD  REQUIRED. 

When  tobacco  is  small  and  has  not  begun  to  lap  in  the  row  an 
apphcation  of  3J  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  per  acre  will  be  efficient 
if  carefully  made.  Full-grown  tobacco  should  receive  not  less  than 
5 pounds  per  acre.  Of  course  the  weight  of  the  ashes  or  other  carrier 
used  is  in  addition  to  the  weight  of  the  arsenate  of  lead.  In  water 
spray  use  not  less  than  3 to  4 pounds  per  100  gallons  of  water. 

COST  OF  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD. 

The  special  grade  of  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  recommended  for 
use  on  tobacco  will  cost  about  22  cents  per  pound  at  the  factory  in 
100-pound  kegs.  The  freight  will  be  about  1 cent  per  pound,  mak- 
ing the  total  cost  23  cents  per  pound  to  the  grower.  Therefore  a 3^- 
pound  dosage  will  cost  about  80  cents,  while  a 5-pound  dosage  will 
cost  SI. 15.  In  1913  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  retailed  at  Clarks- 
ville, Tenn.,  for  25  cents  per  pound.  A 2-pound  dosage  of  Paris 
green  costs  from  50  to  55  cents,  while  a dosage  of  1 J pounds,  which  is 
the  smallest  which  should  be  appUed,  will  cost  about  31  to  35  cents. 
If  the  comparative  cost  of  Paris  green  and  arsenate  of  lead  were  the 
only  question  to  be  considered,  it  would  be  useless  to  recommend 
arsenate  of  lead.  The  cost,  however,  for  the  careful  grower  should 
be  a matter  of  strictly  secondary  consideration.  The  certainty  of 
not  burning  the  tobacco  should  more  than  compensate  for  the  extra 
cost  of  this  insecticide. 


ABSENATE  OF  LEAD  FOB  TOBACCO  HOBNWOBMS. 


7 


Fig.  2. — Amount  of  leaf  surface  of  tobacco  eaten  by  homworms  from  time  of  hatching  to  completion 

of  growth. 

A represents  one-sixteenth  of  the  amount  eaten  in  the  first  9 days;  JB  represents  one-sixteenth  of  the 
amount  eaten  in  the  last  10  to  11  days. 

During  the  first  9 days  of  its  life  the  tobacco  homworm  eats  about  7f  square  iuches  of  leaf  surface,  while 
during  the  last  10  to  11  days  of  its  life  it  eats  about  191 J square  inches — 25  times  the  amount  eaten  during 
the  first  9 days.  This  statement  should  suggest  the  proper  time  for  applying  arsenate  of  lead  to  tobacco,  which 
is  while  the  worms  are  small — that  is,  while  they  are  easy  to  hill  and  before  they  have  done  much  damage  to  the 
tobacco.  Repeat  the  application  as  soon  as  numbers  of  small  worms  appear  upon  the  tobacco.  ^ 

■ i.-,' 


8 


farmers'  BULLETIIT  595. 
SUMMARY. 


Paris  green  frequently  burns  tobacco  very  severely,  and  maj 
reduce  the  value  of  the  crop  as  much  as  50  per  cent  in  exceptional 
cases. 

It  is  impossible  to  apply  an  effective  dosage  of  Paris  green  withoul 
risk  of  burning  tobacco. 

Paris  green,  which  is  applied  in  dust  form  without  a carrier,  is  usee 
at  a dosage  of  from  1 to  2 pounds  per  acre. 

Arsenate  of  lead  is  safe  and  effective  during  rainy  weather,  whih 
Paris  green  is  dangerous  and  ineffective. 

It  is  recommended  that  arsenate  of  lead  be  used  against  the  tobacce 
hornworms,  and  that  it  be  applied  as  a dust  or  powder. 

The  dosage  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  powdered  form  varies  from  3^ 
pounds  per  acre  to  5 pounds  per  acre.  If  apphed  as  a spray,  use  2. 
to  4 pounds  in  100  gallons  of  water. 

Arsenate  of  le^d  applied  in  powdered  form,  as  here  recommended, 
must  be  mixed  'with  a carrier.  The  best  carrier  found  so  far  is  di^ 
wood  ashes,  used  in  a bulk  at  least  equal  to  the  arsenate  of  lead. 

In  applying  arsenate  of  lead  use  a dust  gun  having  a fan  diameter 
of  at  least  8 inches. 

Apply  arsenate  of  lead  when  there  is  no  breeze  and  when  dew  is 
on  the  plants. 

0, 


WASHINGTON  : OOVSENMHNT  PRINTING  OFFICH  ; 1914 


U.S.DEPARTMENT'  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Wm.  A.  Taylor,  Chief. 
June  20,  1914. 


THE  CULTURE  OF  WINTER  WHEAT  IN  THE 
EASTERN  UNITED  STATES. 


By  Clyde  E.  Leighty, 

Agronomist  in  Charge  of  Eastern  Wheat  Investigations,  Office  of  Cereal 

Investigations. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  region  under  discussion  in  this  bulletin  includes  the  humid 
winter-wheat  districts,  comprising  mainly  the  States  east  ol*  Ne- 
braska, Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas,  with  a small  eastern  portion 
of  each  of  those  States  and  excepting  the  New  England  States.  This 
region  is  shown  by  shaded 
lines  on  the  accompanying 
map  (fig.  1).  The  bound- 
ary of  this  region  is  some- 
what arbitrary,  as  there  is  a 
zone  on  the  north  in  which 
both  winter  and  spring 
wheat  are  grown  and  an- 
other on  the  west  where 
conditions  may  be  either 
humid  or  semiarid.  Within 
this  area  the  rainfall  shown 
by  the  numbered  lines  in 
figure  1 is  usually  sufficient 
for  crop  needs  without  re- 
sorting to  special  methods 
of  tillage  to  conserve  mois- 
ture, such  as  are  practiced  on  the  Great  Plains.  In  that  part  of  the 
area  which  lies  west  of  the  line  of  about  35  inches  average  rainfall, 
the  hard  red  winter  wheats  of  the  Turkey  or  Crimean  type  are  prin- 
cipally grown.  East  of  this  line  the  semihard  and  the  soft  red  wheats 


Fig.  1. — Map  of  the  United  States,  showing  by 
shaded  lines  that  portion  of  the  humid  wheat 
region  to  which  this  bulletin  is  applicable.  The 
boundaries  are  somewhat  arbitrary,  there  being 
transition  zones  on  the  north  and  west.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  in  inches  is  shown  by  the 
numbered  lines. 


Note. — This  bulletin  gives  directions  for  growing  winter  wheat  in  the  eastern  half 
of  the  United  States,  including  small  portions  of  eastern  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma, 
and  Texas. 

4?, 202°— Bull.  596—14 


2 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  596. 


and  the  soft  white  wheats  are  principally  produced,  the  red  wheats 
being  most  generally  grown.  (Fig.  2.) 

SOILS  ADAPTED  TO  WHEAT. 

The  soil  best  suited  to  the  production  of  wheat  is  one  which  fur- 
nishes a firm  yet  friable  seed  bed,  while  beneath  this  there  is  a com- 
pact subsoil.  It  should  have  sufficient  natural  slope  to  allow  good 
surface  drainage  and  should  be  provided  with  subsoil  drainage. 
This  soil,  furthermore,  should  contain  plenty  of  vegetable  matter 
and  plant  food  and  should  not  be  acid. 

These  conditions  are  most  nearly  fulfilled  in  the  loam,  silt-loam, 
clay-loam,  and  some  of  the  clay  soils.  Sandj^  soils  and  many  heavy 


clay  soils  are  not  so  suitable  for  wheat  growing,  the  former  being 
too  loose  in  texture  to  retain  moisture  and  the  latter  too  compact  to 
allow  aeration  and  proper  drainage.  A silt  loam  overlying  clay  is 
a good  combination.  The  Hagerstown  loam  of  the  Eastern  States 
is  one  of  the  best  for  wheat  growing.  It  is  described  as  follows : 

The  Hagerstown  loam  is  characterized  through  practically  its  entire  extent 
by  a brown  or  yellowish  brown  silty  loam  surface  soil  having  a depth  which 
ranges  from  6 inches  as  a minimum  to  12  or  14  inches  in  the  deeper  areas. 
This  surface  soil  is  soft  and  mellow  and  usually  has  the  appearance  of  being 
well  charged  with  organic  matter.  It  grades  downward  into  a yellow  heavy 
loam  or  clay-loam  subsoil,  which  in  turn  grades  into  a heavier  clay  loam  or 
clay  subsoil  at  a depth  of  2 to  2J  feet.  This  deeper  subsoil  is  not  infrequently 
of  a brown  or  reddish  color  and  in  practically  all  cases  it  is  sharply  hounded 
by  the  underlying  undissolved  limestone  rock. 


CULTURE  OF  WINTER  WHEAT  IN  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES.  3 

On  poorly  drained  soils,  wheat  is  often  killed  directly  by  the  accu- 
mulation of  water  in  low  spots  or  is  smothered  by  the  formation  of 
ice  in  winter.  Wheat  plants  are  also  often  heaved  out  of  the  ground 
by  the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  in  the  fall  and  spring,  this 
being  due  to  the  formation  of  ice  in  soils  saturated  with  water. 
Sufficient  moisture  should  be  present  for  good  growth,  while  all 
water  in  excess  of  this  amount  should  be  promptly  removed  by  the 
drainage  system.  Winterkilling,  which  is  usually  a sign  of  poor 
drainage,  is  thus  largely  prevented.  It  is  a frequent  observation 
that  winterkilling  is  worst  where  the  humus  content  of  the  soil  is 
least.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  better  drainage  resulting  from  the 
improved  physical  condition  of  soil  in  which  humus  is  plentiful. 

FERTILIZERS. 

There  are  few  of  the  older  agricultural  soils  suited  to  wheat  grow- 
ing on  which  fertilizers  of  proper  composition  will  not  give  a profit 
when  applied  in  connection  with  good  farm  practice.  The  object  of 
fertilization  is  mainly  to  provide  a balanced  ration  for  the  growing 
plant,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  supply  in  the  fertilizer  the 
elements  of  plant  food  which  are  not  already  available  in  sufficient 
quantity  in  the  soil.  It  is  likewise  unnecessary  to  add  an  element 
already  available  in  sufficient  amount.  The  soil  constituents  which 
are  often  deficient  are  calcium  (lime),  nitrogen,  potassium,  phos- 
phorus, and  humus,  or  decaying  organic  matter. 

Calcium  is  supplied  as  lime  or  limestone  to  correct  acidity,  if 
necessary,  and  also  as  a plant  food.  Nitrogen  is  present  in  manure 
and  in  nitrate  fertilizers,  but  the  principal  source  is  from  the  air. 
It  can  be  obtained  from  the  air  very  cheaply  by  growing  legumes, 
such  as  clover,  cowpeas,  and  soy  beans,  in  rotation  or  as  catch  crops. 
Potassium  is  usually  present  in  the  soil  in  sufficient  amount  and  can 
be  made  available  by  the  decay  of  manure  and  plant  remains,  but 
when  absent  or  not  readily  available  it  is  supplied  as  kainit,  or  po- 
tassium salt.  Phosphorus  is  very  generally  deficient  in  the  older 
wheat  soils  and  must  be  supplied  by  the  addition  of  some  form  of 
phosphatic  fertilizer,  such  as  acid  phosphate,  bone  meal,  rock  phos- 
phate (floats),  or  basic  slag.  Humus  is  supplied  in  stable  or  barn- 
yard manure  and  in  green  manure. 

Stable  or  barnj^ard  manure  is  of  great  benefit  when  added  to  soils. 
It  supplies  humus  by  the  decay  of  the  organic  matter,  while  nitrogen 
and  potassium  are  usually  contained  in  it  in  considerable  amounts. 
It  usually  does  not  contain  a sufficient  percentage  of  phosphorus, 
however,  to  be  a balanced  ration  for  plants.  If  40  or  50  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate,  rock  phospijiate,  or  basic  slag  are  added  to  each  ton 
of  manure  as  it  is  being  made  in  the  stable  or  before  hauling  to  the 
field,  this,  deficiency  of  phosphorus  is  overcome,  and  a better  form  of 


4 


FARMEKS  BULLETIN  596. 


fertilizer  can  scarcely  be  found.  At  least  8 tons  per  acre  of  this 
treated  manure  should  be  applied  once  in  four  years. 

The  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  after  making  hun- 
dreds of  fertilizer  tests  throughout  the  State,  has  instituted  on  its 
experimental  farm  a method  of  fertilization  which  should  be  appli- 
cable to  a large  part  of  the  winter-wheat  region.  It  is  described  as 
follows : 

Corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  clover  have  been  grown  in  a 4-year  rotation,  . . . these 
crops  being  grown  on  four  10-acre  fields,  each  crop  being  grown  every  season. 

In  this  experiment,  manure  has  been  taken  directly  from  the  stable  to  the 
field.  . . . This  manure,  moreover,  has  been  reenforced  with  phosphorus  car- 
ried in  acid  phosphate  or  raw  phosphate  rock  to  make  up  for  the  phosphorus 
taken  out  of  their  feed  by  the  animals  producing  the  manure,  in  order  to  build 
up  their  skeletons,  the  phosphate  being  dusted  in  the  stables  at  the  rate  of  1 
pound  per  1,000-pound  animal  per  day.  This  phosphated  manure  has  been 
spread  on  the  clover  sod  in  the  fall  or  early  winter  at  the  rate  of  about  10  tons 
per  acre,  and  plowed  under  for  corn,  the  plowed  land  being  dressed  with  lime- 
stone ...  (1  ton  per  acre). 

The  oats  receive  no  treatment,  but  the  wheat  receives  a complete  fertilizer, 
made  up  of  about  200  pounds  steamed  bone  meal,  100  pounds  acid  phosphate, 
and  40  pounds  muriate  of  potash  in  the  fall,  followed  by  60  pounds  nitrate  of 
soda  in  the  spring,  or  a total  of  400  pounds  per  acre,  having  the  formula  4-16-5, 
and  costing  about  $6.50  per  acre  for  the  materials,  or  at  the  rate  of  $32.50  i>er 
ton. 

Allowing  $5  for  handling  the  manure,  $3  for  the  phosphate  used  with  it,  $3 
for  the  limestone,  and  $6.50  for  the  fertilizer,  the  total  cost  of  this  treatment 
has  been  $17.50  per  acre  for  each  four-year  i)eriod,  or  $4.38  annually. 

The  outcome  of  this  treatment  has  been  an  eight-year  average  of  77  bushels 
of  corn  per  acre,  followed  by  61  bushels  of  oats,  33  bushels  of  wheat,  and  3$ 
tons  of  hay,  thus  giving  an  increase  above  the  unfertilized  yield  of  50  bushels 
of  corn,  31  bushels  of  oats,  and  21  bushels  of  wheat,  and  more  than  three  times 
as  much  hay  as  has  been  harvested  from  either  of  the  hay  crops  on  the  un- 
treated land. 

In  other  words,  this  40-acre  tract  is  yielding  more  than  twice  as  much  corn, 
wheat,  and  hay  as  the  average  of  Ohio,  and  nearly  twice  as  much  oats.  Of 
course,  not  all  the  land  in  Ohio  is  in  condition  to  produce  such  yields.  Much 
of  it  is  deficient  in  drainage  and  there  are  some  areas  of  thin,  cold  clay  that 
will  require  not  only  drainage,  but  also  such  treatment  as  will  increase  the 
supply  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  before  any  system  of  fertilizing  can  have 
its  full  effect.  But  the  response  which  is  being  given  by  soils  in  other  parts  of 
the  State  to  certain  parts  of  the  treatment  above  described  is  sufficient  to  show 
that  the  yields  of  the  great  majority  of  Ohio  farms  may  be  very  materially 
increased  by  measures  which  will  be  abundantly  reimbursed  in  each  year’s  crops. 

Green  manures  are  any  green  crops  that  are  grown  and  plowed 
under  for  soil  benefit.  By  their  decay  they  furnish  humus  and  make 
available  certain  mineral  elements  already  in  the  soil.  Eye  is  very 
good  for  this  purpose,  though  it  is  better  not  to  use  this  crop  alone, 
but  in  combination  with  a legume.  The  legumes  are  usually  grown 
foi*  green  manure,  however,  as  they  furnish  abundant  green  material 
to  plow  under  and  also  have  the  added  advantage  of  being  able  to 


CULTURE  OF  WINTER  WHEAT  IN  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES.  5 

change  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  into  a form  available  for  the  use  of 
plants. 

When  barnyard  or  other  rotted  manure  is  not  available  and  plant 
remains,  such  as  straw  and  stubble,  are  not  returned  to  the  soil,  the 
gi-owing  of  suitable  green-manure  crops  is  imperative  in  order  to 
maintain  soil  fertility  and  the  supply  of  humus.  On  comparatively 
few  farms  is  there  sufficient  rotted  manure  to  take  the  place  of 
green  manures  altogether,  although  by  returning  the  plant  remains 
to  the  soil  less  of  the  green  manure  will  need  to  be  grown  than 
where  no  returns  are  made.  By  the  proper  care  of  plant  residues 
and  the  use  of  green-manure  crops,  principally  the  legumes,  fertility 
can  be  maintained  as  cheaply  and  as  effectively  as  with  the  use  of 
large  amounts  of  rotted  manures  only. 

The  amount  and  kind  of  commercial  fertilizers  to  be  added  in  a 
system  of  farming  where  no  stable  or  barnyard  manure  is  produced 
would  not  differ  from  that  given  in  preceding  paragraphs  as  in 
use  in  Ohio.  The  applications  of  lime,  phosphorus,  potassium,  and 
nitrogen  should  be  made  as  there  directed,  except  that  rotted  straw 
may  take  the  place  of  the  manure  or  the  phosphate  may  be  added 
directly  to  the  clover  sod  and  not  in  connection  with  manure.  The 
rotation  of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  clover  can  be  made  to  furnish 
sufficient  humus  to  the  soil.  To  do  this,  cornstalks  generally  should 
not  be  removed.  Only  the  seed  of  the  clover  crop  should  be  removed, 
and  all  straw  and  other  plant  remains  should  be  returned  to  and 
incorporated  with  the  soil. 


ROTATIONS. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  crop  wheat  continuously  on  the  same  land,  as 
such  a practice  results  in  depleted  soil  fertility,  poor  physical  condi- 
tion of  the  soil,  increased  growth  of  weeds,  mixtures  of  grain  varie- 
ties, and  lowered  yields  of  poorer  quality.  Even  if  soil  fertility  and 
a fairly  good  physical  condition  are  maintained  by  the  addition  of 
chemicals,  such  a cropping  sj^stem  is  not  advisable,  on  account  of  its 
cost  and  the  further  reasons  just  cited. 

A rotation  of  grain  crops  only  is  but  little  better  than  continuous 
wheat,  as  there  is  no  nitrogen-adding  crop,  and  humus  is  likely  to 
be  exhausted  by  this  system.  The  fallow  system  is  also  impracticable 
in  the  region  under  discussion. 

A good  rotation  system  should  include  a legume  and  a cultivated 
crop.  Local  conditions  should  determine  the  rotation  and  the  par- 
ticular crops  to  be  used.  The  stirring  of  the  soil  incident  to  cultiva- 
tion has  a beneficial  effect  upon  its  chemical  and  physical  conditions 
and  tends  to  eradicate  weeds.  Manures  can  also  be  worked  in  by 
cultivation  and  made  available  for  the  wheat  crop.  In  much  of  the 
humid  areas  a rotation  in  which  corn,  tobacco,  cowpeas,  or  soy  beans 


6 


FAEMERS^  BULLETIN  596. 


precede  wheat  is  practicable.  The  purpose  of  growing  a leguiue 
is  to  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  store  it  in  the  soil,  and  also 
to  help  maintain  the  supply  of  humus.  The  clovers  in  the  Northern 
States,  and  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  vetch,  and  crimson  clover  in  the 
Southern  States,  are  the  leading  legumes  for  this  purpose.  Vetch  is 
usually  grown  with  rye  in  the  East  and  South. 

A good  rotation,  especially  for  the  northern  part  of  the  winter- 
wheat  region,  is  corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover  and  timothy  (two  years). 
This  may  be  modified  by  the  omission  of  the  oats  or  the  timothy,  or 
both.  Cowpeas  or  soy  beans  may  be  substituted  very  profitably  for 
oats  in  many  localities  where  oats  do  not  pay,  or  wheat  may  be  grown 
twice  in  succession.  In.  tobacco-growing  localities  tobacco  may  be  so 
substituted ; barley  may  also  take  the  place  of  oats  in  some  localities. 
It  is  being  recognized  that  wheat  after  cowpeas  or  soy  beans  is  more 
profitable  than  after  corn ; hence,  a rotation  of  corn,  cowpeas,  or  soy 
beans,  wheat,  and  clover  is  advisable  where  these  legumes  ai^e 
adapted. 

On  soils  suitable  for  wheat  in  the  South  the  rotation  may  be  as 
follows : 

(1)  Cotton,  with  crimson  clover  sown  at  the  last  cultivation  and 
plowed  under  the  following  spring. 

(2)  Corn,  with  cowpeas  sown  between  the  rows  at  the  last  culti- 
vation. 

(3)  VTieat,  followed  by  cowpeas,  followed  by  rye.  The  cowpeas 
following  the  wheat  crop  may  be  cut  for  hay,  or  they  may  be  disked 
in  or  plowed  under  as  green  manure. 

WHEAT  AS  A NURSE  CROP. 

lYinter  wheat  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  nurse  crops.  Winter 
barley  is  probably  better  in  the  Southern  States,  where  it  can  be 
grown,  as  it  matures  earlier  and  does  not  grow  so  tall.  Wheat  is 
better  than  spring  oats,  because  it  does  not  make  so  much  shade  and  is 
removed  from  the  ground  earlier  in  the  season.  By  the  early  removal 
of  the  grain  crop  the  young  clover  and  grass  plants  are  benefited  by 
the  moisture  remaining  in  the  soil,  which  is  very  important  in  dry 
seasons.  Vdien  used  as  a nurse  crop  the  stubble  should  be  left  as 
high  as  possible,  to  furnish  some  protection  and  support  to  the  young 
grass  and  clover.  The  shocked  grain  should  be  removed  from  the 
field  as  soon  as  possible  after  cutting,  to  avoid  injury  to  the  seeding. 

WHEAT  AS  A COVER  CROP. 

Where  a good  groAvth  of  wheat  is  secured  in  the  fall,  the  crop  is 
A'aluable  in  preventing  the  washing  which  is  so  preA^alent  AvheneA^er 
heavy  clay  soils  are  unprotected.  The  leaching  out  and  loss  of  plant 
food  and  feililizers  by  the  Avinter  rains  are  also  largely  reduced  by 
such  a cover  crop. 


CULTURE  OF  WINTER  WHEAT  IN  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES.  7 
PREPARATION  OF  THE  SEED  BED. 

The  principle  underlying  the  preparation  of  soil  for  wheat  is  that 
the  seed  bed  must  be  firm,  moist,  and  well  compacted  beneath,  with  a 
mellow,  finely  divided  upper  3 inches  of  soil.  If  wheat  is  grown  in 
rotation  with  oats  or  after  wheat,  the  stubble  should  be  plowed  to  a 
depth  of  at  least  T inches  immediately  after  harvesting  the  crop  of 
grain.  The  ground  should  be  harrowed  within  a few  hours  after 
plowing,  and  cultivation  with  harrow,  disk,  drag,  or  roller  should  be 
given  as  necessary  thereafter  until  planting  time,  to  kill  weeds,  to 
settle  and  make  firm  the  subsoil,  and  to  maintain  a soil  mulch  above. 
Late  plowing  does  not  allow  time  for  these  results  to  be  obtained. 

Experiments  at  the  Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  fur- 
nish evidence  that  “ the  largest  yields  of  wheat  and  the  largest  profits 
result  from  those  methods  of  preparation  by  which  the  soil  is  worked 
early  in  the  season  and  kept  cultivated  until  the  wheat  is  sown  and 
when  wheat  is  grown  in  rotation  with  other  crops.  There  may  be  an 
exception  to  very  early  plowing  on  fertile  soils  in  wet  seasons.  Under 
these  conditions  medium  early  plowing  is  advisable.” 

If  a cultivated  crop  precedes  wheat,  frequent  cultivation  given  to 
this  crop  will  preserve  moisture  and  maintain  a soil  mulch.  If  level 
cultivation  has  been  practiced,  a*  good  seed  bed  can  usually  be  pre- 
pared by  disking  and  harrowing  after  removing  the  crop.  If  weeds 
are  present,  however,  it  may  be  advisable  to  plow  shallow,  the  disk 
preceding  and  following  the  plow. 

Early  plowing  and  thorough  tillage  of  the  plowed  soil  aid  in 
catching  the  water  which  falls  and  in  storing  this  and  the  water 
already  in  the  soil  for  use  by  the  wheat  plants.  The  firm  seed  bed 
under  this  mulch  enables  the  young  wheat  plants  to  make  use  of  the 
subsoil  waters  which  rise  by  capillarity  when  there  is  a perfect  union 
between  the  plowed  soil  and  the  subsoil.  Sufficient  water  is  thus 
assured  for  the  germination  of  the  seed  when  sown  and  for  the  early 
fall  growth  of  the  seedlings,  a very  important  consideration.  Plant 
food  is  also  likely  to  be  more  abundant  in  the  soil  when  such  methods 
are  employed. 

If  the  importance  of  thorough  tillage  were  more  generally  recog- 
nized and  proper  methods  of  seed-bed  preparation  were  employed 
more  commonly  throughout  the  so-called  humid  areas,  there  would 
be  less  frequent  losses  from  drought  and  better  wheat  crops  would 
result.  In  this  area  the  mistake  is  often  made  of  thinking  that  there 
will  always  be  moisture  enough  present  for  maximum  crop  growth, 
with  the  result  that  short  crops  are  often  obtained  where  more  at- 
tention to  moisture  preservation  would  have  assured  good  yields. 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  596. 
PREPARATION  OF  THE  SEED. 


It  is  usually  advisable  to  use  home-gi*own  wheat  for  seed.  It  has 
been  shown  by  experiment  that  seed  acclimated  to  a locality  generally 
gives  better  yields  than  seed  of  the  same  variety  brought  from  a dis- 
tance. The  practice  of  changing  seed  each  year  or  every  few  years  is 
not  justified  by  experimental  results.  Any  change  that  is  made 
should  be  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a better  variety  of  known 
value.  Small  tests  should  be  made  of  a new  variety  in  a locality  in 
order  to  establish  its  value  and  allow  for  acclimatization  before  gen- 
eral sowings  are  made. 

Broken,  immature,  and  shriveled  grains,  weed  seeds,  and  all  foreign 
material  should  be  removed  by  fanning  and  grading  the  seed  before 
it  is  sown.  The  fanning  mill  will  also  remove  smut  balls  and  many 
grains  affected  by  scab,  as  these  are  lighter  than  the  sound  grain. 

Where  stinking  smut  is  present,  seed  wheat  should  be  treated  with 
formalin  according  to  the  method  described  in  F armers’  Bulletin  507, 
entitled  “The  Smuts  of  ^Vheat,  Oats,  Barley,  and  Corn.”  This 
formalin  treatment  will  ver^^  materially  check  the  disease  known  as 
anthracnose,  which  attacks  the  lower  portions  of  the  stems  and  causes 
the  leaf  sheaths  to  become  blackened.  After  treating  the  seed  with 
formalin,  reinfection  should  be  avoided  by  the  use  of  bags,  bins,  and 
implements  that  are  free  from  the  disease  germs,  treating  these  also 
with  formalin  if  necessary. 

The  control  of  the  loose  smut  of  wheat  is  difficult,  but  it  can  be 
accomplished  by  the  hot- water  treatment  described  in  Farmers’  Bul- 
letin 507.  As  infection  of  the  seed  with  this  disease  occurs  at  the 
time  of  flowering,  it  can  be  avoided  by  sowing  seed  from  fields  or 
portions  of  fields  in  which  no  smutted  heads  are  found. 

Little  difficulty  is  usually  experienced  in  regard  to  the  germina- 
tion of  seed  wheat.  Should  any  doubt  exist,  due  to  the  seed  being 
old,  shriveled,  weathered,  or  otherwise  not  in  good  condition,  a germi- 
nation test  should  be  made.  To  make  a germination  test  several  lots 
of  100  grains  each  should  be  counted  out  and  placed  between  blotters 
or  Canton  flannel  or  in  sand,  where  they  must  be  kept  moist  and  at  a 
temperature  of  about  70°  F.  for  several  days,  after  which  the  num- 
ber of  seeds  which  show  strong  sprouts  should  be  counted.  Seed 
that  is  weak  in  vitality  should  be  discarded  or  sown  at  a higher  rate 
per  acre  than  that  commonly  employed. 

SOWING  THE  SEED. 

METHOD  OF  SEEDING. 

So  many  experiments  have  shown  the  superiority  of  drilling  over 
broadcasting  wheat  that  doubt  should  no  longer  exist  regarding  this 
point.  More  uniform  stands  are  secured  with  less  seed  and  winter 


CULTURE  OF  WINTER  WHEAT  IN  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES.  9 


resistance  is  greater  where  drills  are  used  for  seeding.  The  shoe 
drill,  disk  drill,  and  hoe  drill  are  all  about  equally  good  for  seeding 
purposes,  and  it  makes  little  difference  on  well-prepared  soil  which 
kind  is  used.  In  all  soils  except  those  that  are  very  heavy  or  wet 
it  is  well  to  have  the  drill  provided  with  press  v/heels,  which  firm  the 
earth  about  the  seed  and  insure  close  contact  of  seed  and  soil.  The 
press  wheel  is  especially  valuable  where  the  winters  are  severe  and 
the  seed  bed  rather  loose.  The  drill  rows  should  be  from  6 to  8 
inches  apart. 

The  proper  depth  to  plant  seed  wheat  is  about  2 or  3 inches.  A 
greater  depth  than  3 inches  is  seldom  advisable  except,  perhaps,  in 
loose,  dry  soils.  A depth  of  1 to  2 inches  is  allowable  when  a good 
supply  of  moisture  is  present. 

TIME  OP  SEEDING. 

Wheat  should  be  sown  early  enough  to  allow  the  plants  to  become 
well  started  before  winter  sets  in,  yet  not  so  early  as  to  allow  them  to 
become  jointed.  Where  the  Hessian  fly  is  present,  as  it  generally  is  in 
most  of  the  sections  where  winter  wheat  is  grown,  seeding  should  be 
delayed  as  much  as  possible.  The  first  frost  in  the  fall  destroys  most 
of  these  insects  and  thus  reduces  to  a minimum  the  damage  which 
they  inflict.  The  only  effective  means  of  combating  this  pest  is  the 
late  sowing  of  wheat  by  all  wheat  growers  in  a community,  accom- 
panied by  a systematic  destruction  of  stubble  or  other  breeding 
places  of  the  insects.  In  seasons  when  the  first  frost  is  unusually 
delayed  it  is  not  safe  to  wait  too  long,  as  losses  may  be  greater  from 
failure  of  the  young,  poorly  rooted  plants  to  survive  the  winter  than 
from  injury  by  the  fl}^ 

The  risks  of  late  seeding  may  be  largely  avoided  by  providing  a 
seed  bed  finely  worked  on  top,  but  compact  and  well  drained  beneath, 
in  which  there  is  plenty  of  moisture  and  available  plant  food. 
Prompt  germination  of  the  seed  and  rapid  growth  of  the  seedlings 
thus  assured  will  allow  the  plants  to  enter  the  winter  in  as  good  con- 
dition as  those  from  seed  sown  earlier  but  less  favorably. 

The  proper  time  for  sowing  wheat  can  not  be  exactly  specified  for 
all  the  area  here  being  considered.  In  general,  for  each  10  miles  of 
difference  in  latitude  there  is  a difference  of  one  day  in  the  seeding 
date,  this  date  being  earlier  as  one  goes  north  or  later  as  one  goes 
south  from  a given  point.  Similarly,  seeding  should  be  approxi- 
mately one  day  earlier  for  each  100  feet  of  increase  in  elevation. 

The  proper  date  for  localities  in  the  latitude  of  northern  Ohio  is 
about  the  first  week  in  September;  for  southern  Ohio,  the  last  Aveek 
in  September;  for  central  Tennessee  and  central  Oklahoma,  aboui 
the  middle  of  October;  and  for  northern  Georgia,  about  the  first  of 
November.  For  the  Piedmont  section  of  Yirsinia,  alloAvance  for 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  596. 


elevation  must  be  made,  and  so  in  the  northern  part  the  middle  of 
September  and  in  the  southern  part  the  last  week  in  September  seem 
best.  There  is  usiiallj^  a period  of  several  weeks  in  all  the  winter- 
Avheat  area,  however,  in  which  sowing  may  take  place  with  about 
equal  results.  This  period  is  longer  as  one  proceeds  southward. 

RATE  OF  SEEDING. 

The  quantity  of  seed  that  should  be  sown  under  ordinal-}^  condi- 
tions in  the  humid  winter-wheat  areas  is  6 pecks  per  acre.  This  may 
be  varied  according  to  the  size  of  kernel  of  the  variety  used,  the  con- 
dition of  the  seed  bed,  the  fertility  and  character  of  the  soil,  and  the 
date  of  seeding.  When  the  grains  are  small,  the  seed  bed  in  good 
condition,  the  soil  rich,  warm,  and  well  drained,  and  the  seeding 
early,  5 or  even  4 pecks  per  acre  are  often  sufficient.  IWiere  opposite 
(‘onditions  exist,  7,  8,  or  even  10  pecks  may  give  more  profitable 
results.  It  is  advisable  to  adhere  to  these  rules  with  all  varieties, 
regardless  of  any  claims  of  exceptional  tillering  ability  that  may  be 
made. 

PASTURING  AND  MOWING. 

It  frequently  happens,  especially  in  the  Southern  States,  that  an 
overabundance  of  foliage  is  produced  in  the  fall,  and  danger  of 
winter  injury  is  increased  thereby.  It  is  often  advisable  under  these 
conditions  to  mow  off  the  plants  in  the  fall  or  to  pasture  moderately. 
As  growing  wheat  is  an  excellent  feed,  it  is  more  profitable  to  dis- 
pose of  the  excess  growth  in  the  late  fall  or  early  spring  b}^  pastur- 
ing. Excessive  pasturing  at  any  time,  pasturing  when  the  soil  is 
wet,  and  late  spring  pasturing  are  veiy  injurious  and  should  be 
entirely  avoided.  The  amount  of  lodging  is  probably  reduced  by 
judicious  mowing  or  pasturing. 

CULTIVATION  OF  THE  CROP. 

The  wheat  crop  of  the  humid  areas  is  generally  not  benefited  by 
cultivation  of  any  sort  either  in  the  fall  or  spring.  On  heavy  soils 
in  very  dry  seasons  light  harrowing  early  in  the  spring  is  sometimes 
profitable.  The  use  of  a corrugated  roller  is  often  advisable  in  the 
spring  where  the  soil  is  badly  heaved.  It  may  also  be  beneficial  to 
roll  winter  wheat  immediately  after  sowing  when  the  soil  is  dry  and 
loose,  but  this  treatment  would  probably  be  detrimental  where  soil- 
moisture  conditions  are  normal. 

HARVESTING  THE  CROP. 

TIME  OF  CUTTING. 

' Where  a self-binder  is  used,  wheat  may  be  cut  with  safety  when 
the  straw  has  lost  nearly  all  of  its  green  color  and  the  grains  are  not 
entirely  hardened.  If  cut  sooner  than  this,  shriveled  kernels  will 


CULTURE  OF  WINTER  WHEAT  IN  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES.  11 

result.  If  left  standing  until  fully  ripe,  a bleached  appearance,  due 
to  the  action  of  the  elements,  often  results  and  loss  from  shattering 
may  ensue,  lldieat  that  is  fully  ripe  is  also  more  difficult  to  handle. 
Where  the  area  of  wheat  is  large,  cutting  should  begin  as  early  as  it 
can  be  done  safely. 

MANNER  OF  CUTTING. 

In  practically  all  of  the  region  under  discussion  wheat  is  cut  with 
a self-binder.  The  header  used  in  the  Great  Plains  area  is  seldom 
seen  east  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  The  old  method  of  cutting  with  a 
cradle  is  still  used  on  very  rough  land  and  for  small  patches  where 
wheat  is  not  an  important  farm  crop. 

SHOCKING. 

Wheat  should  be  shocked  in  the  field  immediately  after  being  cut 
and  bound.  A shock  is  begun  by  standing  two  bundles  in  a nearly 
upright  position  with  heads  together  and  butts  sufficiently  apart  to 
prevent  falling  over.  From  8 to  12,  and  sometimes  more,  bundles 
are  then  set  up  about  these  until  a round  shock  of  the  proper  size  is 
formed.  The  number  of  bundles  to  place  in  a shock  depends  upon 
the  degree  of  ripeness,  the  length  of  straw,  and  the  size  of  the 
bundle,  fewer  bundles  being  used  where  the  straw  is  short  or  not 
fully  ripe.  In  placing  the  bundles,  the  butts  should  be  jammed  into 
the  stubble  to  insure  firmness  and  the  heads  should  lean  inward  suffi- 
ciently to  prevent  falling  over.  IWien  this  part  of  the  shock  is  com- 
pleted it  should  be  covered  as  perfectly  as  possible  with  two  bundles, 
the  heads  of  which,  have  been  broken  down  at  the  band,  to  form  a 
cap.  This  cap  should  be  placed  so  as  to  protect  the  standing  bundles 
from  rain  and  sun  as  much  as  possible.  If  the  heads  of  the  cap  are 
placed  on  the  side  of  the  shock  toward  the  prevailing  winds,  some 
protection  against  blowing  off  may  be  afforded. 

STACKING. 

In  the  Eastern  States  wheat  is  usually  stacked  outside  or  stored 
in  mows  as  soon  as  it  is  dried  out  in  the  shock,  and  it  is  then  allowed 
to  remain  a few  weeks  or  months  until  thrashing  can  be  done. 
Farther  west,  thrashing  directly  from  the  shock  is  the  more  common 
practice.  The  cost  of  thrashing  from  the  shock  is  generally  some- 
what less  than  the  cost  of  stacking  and  thrashing  from  the  stack. 
Where  the  stacking  is  properly  done,  however,  better  j)rotection  is 
afforded  the  grain,  which  is  more  important  when  thrashing  can  not 
be  done  soon  after  cutting.  A “ sweating  ” process  also  takes  place 
in  the  stack,  which  improves  to  some  extent  the  color,  condition,  and 
test  weight  of  the  grain  and  its  milling  and  baking  qualities.  • A 
similar  “ sweating  ” process  may  apparently  take  place  in  shock- 
thrashed  wheat  after  being  placed  in  the  bin.  The  two  chief  ad- 


12 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  596. 


vantages  of  stacking,  therefore,  are  the  protection  from  the  weather 
and  the  improved  quality  of  the  grain,  where  the  farmer  does  not 
have  sufficient  storage  space  for  shock-thrashed  grain.  The  addi- 
tional cost,  if  any,  resulting  from  stacking  wheat  may  often  be  offset 
by  the  better  price  obtainable  on  account  of  the  better  quality  result- 
ing from  protection  and  improvement  in  the  stack.  It  is  also  pos- 
sible in  wet  weather  to  thrash  out  the  wheat  more  completely  from 
the  straw  and  to  remove  more  of  the  chaff  when  stacking  is  practiced. 

THRASHING. 

Thrashing  should  not  be  attempted  when  wheat  or  straw  is  wet  or 
tough,  as  good  results  can  not  then  be  obtained.  Wheat  can  dry 
out  much  better  in  the  head  than  after  being  thrashed.  If  thrashed 
wet  and  marketed  immediately,  it  is  discounted  heavily  in  price;  if 
placed  in  a bin,  it  is  likely  to  become  hot  and  badly  damaged. 

The  wheat  straw  may  be  stacked  in  the  open,  stored  in  the  mow, 
or  spread  at  once  over  the  field.  When  the  price  is  good  it  may  be 
sold.  It  should  never  be  burned.  Straw  furnishes  excellent  rough- 
age  for  live  stock,  while  by  using  it  for  bedding  in  stalls  a large  part 
of  the  valuable  liquid  manure  can  be  preserved.  Rotted  straw  from 
an  old  straw  pile  or  from  straw  spread  directly  on  the  field  makes 
good  manure,  as  each  thousand  pounds  of  straw  contains  on  the 
average  about  8 pounds  of  potassium,  5 pounds  of  nitrogen,  and 
smaller  amounts  of  other  important  plant  foods.  One  thousand 
pounds  of  wheat  grain  removes  on  the  average  about  20  pounds  of 
nitrogen  and  about  3^  pounds  each  of  phosphorus  and  potassium. 

o 


WASHINGTON  : GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


US. DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Office  of  Public  Roads,  L.  W.  Page,  Director, 
July  7.  1914. 


THE  ROAD  DRAG  AND  HOW  IT  IS  USED. 

Prepared  by  the  Office  of  Public  Hoads. 

INTRODUCTION. 

An  attenijit  will  be  made  in  this  paper  to  describe  the  best  methods 
)f  constructing  and  using  road  drags  and  to  supply  information  con- 
•.erning  the  conditions  for  which  such  drags  are  adapted.  Since, 
inder  favorable  conditions,  road  drags  may  be  effectively  used  in 
iiain tabling  roads  constructed  of  earth,  top  soil,  sand  clay,  or  gravel, 

, brief  discussion  of  the  essential  features  of  each  of  these  types  of 
•onstruction  Avill  also  be  given  in  order  that  the  purposes  of  the  drag 
lay  be  more  fully  understood. 

Wlien  it  is  appreciated  that  of  more  than  2,000,000  miles  of  })ublic 
lads  in  the  United  States  only  about  200,000  miles  have  been  given 
hard  surface,  and  of  these  200,000  miles  approximately  one-half 
re  surfaced  with  gravel,  the  importance  of  every  effective  device 
)r  maintaining  the  simpler  tyjies  of  roads  becomes  readily  apparent, 
t should  be  observed  in  this  connection  that  a large  part  of  our  total 
.lileage  of  public  roads  is  entirely  unimproved  and  that  the  drag  is 
* little  use  in  improving  sand  or  clay  roads  which  have  never  been 
•owned  or  drained.  A much  larger  part,  however,  has  been  sufh- 
ently  improved  to  make  the  work  of  the  drag  effective,  and  it  is 
nquestionably  true  that  the  magnitude  of  this  part  is  steadily 
1 creasing. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  road  drags,  made  of  wood  or  a com- 
mition  of  wood  and  metal,  have  been  in  use  for  at  least  two  gen  era- 
ms  and  were  described  in  a textbook  published  as  early  as  1851 
toads  and  Railroads,  by  William  Gillespie,  p.  191),  the  benefits 
be  derived  from  using  them  are,  even  now,  far  from  being  generally 
xlerstood.  This  fact  is  thoroughly  evidenced  by  the  prevalence  of 
ry  unsatisfactory  roads  upon  which  considerably  more  money  is 
nually  expended  in  hauling  materials  to  fill  holes  and  ruts  than 
mid  be  required  to  maintain  the  roads  in  good  condition  by  the 
belligent  use  of  a road  drag. 

OTE. — This  bulletin  contains  instructions  for  constructing  road  drags  and  directions  for  their  use  in 
repair  and  maintenance  of  earth,  top-soil,  sand-clay,  and  gravel  roads. 

44395° 14 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLEJIN-  597, 
PURPOSE  OF  THE  DRAG. 


The  drag  is  a simple  and  inexpensive  device  for  maintaining  cer- 
tain types  of  roads  which  when  wet  become  rutted  under  traffic  and 
which  become  firm  on  drying  out.  It  is  also  well  adaj)ted  for  pro- 
ducing a smooth  and  uniform  surface  on  newly  constructed  roads  in 
which  the  material  used  for  surfacing  is  earth,  earthy  gravel,  or  some 
similar  material.  Wlien  the  construction  of  the  drag  is  discussed 
later,  however,  it  will  be  obvious  that  it  is  essentially  a maintenance 
implement  and  that  its  use  in  construction  is  distinctly  secondary. 
It  will  also  be  apparent  that  roads  which  are  very  rocky  or  very  sandy 
can  not  be  materially  improved  by  its  use. 

Properly  used  at  the  right  time  the  road  drag  performs  four  distinct 
offices.  First,  by  moving  at  an  angle  to  the  traveled  way  it  tends  to 
produce  or  preserve  a crowned  cross  section.  Second,  if  used  when 
the  material  of  the  surface  is  not  compact  and  hard,  it  tends  to  reduce 
ruts  and  other  irregularities  in  the  road  by  moving  material  from 
points  which  are  relatively  high  to  those  which  are  relatively  low. 
Third,  when  used  after  a rain  it  accelerates  the  drying  out  of  the  road 
by  spreading  out  puddles  of  water  and  thus  increasing  the  surfaces 
exposed  to  evaporation.  Fourth,  if  the  surface  material  is  in  a 
slightly  plastic  state,  dragging  smears  over  and  partially  seals  the 
so-called  pores  which  naturally  occur  in  earthy  material,  and  thus 
makes  the  road  surface  more  or  less  impervious  to  water.  The  advan- 
tage of  this  smearing  action  of  the  drag  wiU  be  more  readily  under- 
stood if  a sample  of  ordinary  earth  is  examined  under  a magnifying 
glass.  Such  an  examination  will  show  that  the  earth  closely  resem- 
bles a sponge  or  honeycomb  in  structure,  and  the  desirability  of  clos- 
ing the  open  pores  will  be  readily  apparent. 

If  used  improperly  or  at  the  wrong  time,  the  drag  may  do  actual 
injury  to  a road.  Dragging  a very  dry  road,  for  example,  serves  to 
increase  the  quantity  of  dust  and  may  do  additional  damage  by 
destroying  the  seal  produced  during  previous  dragging.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  road  is  very  wet  and  muddy,  the  irregularities  in  the 
surface  are  likely  to  be  increased  rather  than  diminished  by  dragging. 

HOW  THE  DRAG  IS  CONSTRUCTED. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  (figs.  1 and  2)  show  two  typical 
designs  for  road  drags,  either  of  which  is  very  simple  and  inexpensive. 
The  design  shown  in  figure  1 contemplates  the  use  of  an  ordinary  log 
of  timber,  such  as  may  be  readily  obtained  in  almost  every  locality. 
The  log  should  be  about  7 or  8 inches  in  diameter  and  from  6 to  8 feet 
long,  and  should  preferably  be  of  hard,  tough  wood  which  wiU  not 
decay  very  rapidly  when  exposed  to  the  weather.  White  oak,  burr 
oak,  chestnut,  cedar,  hickory,  walnut,  or  any  similar  wood  may  be 


The  koad  drag  and  how  it  is  used. 


3 


satisfactorily  used,  provided  that  it  is  well  seasoned  before  the  drag 
is  put  into  use.  Railroad  ties  have  been  frequently  used  for  this 
piu’pose  and  possess  the  advantage  that  they  are  already  cut  to  about 


d 

£ 


the  right  length.  In  selecting  the  tie,  however,  care  should  be  exer- 
cised to  see  that  it  is  of  sound  wood  and  of  the  proper  size. 

The  drag  is  made  by  splitting  or  sawing  the  log  into  two  equal 
semicylinders,  which  are  then  framed  together  in  the  manner  shown 


4 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  597. 


in  figure  1.  The  better  of  the  two  pieces  should  form  the  front 
runner  of  the  drag,  because  it  is  the  one  s'id)jected  to  the  greater 
wear.  Moreover,  while  the  front  runner  should  always  be  placed 
with  the  face  forward,  it  is  claimed  by  many  that  better  results  may 
be  obtained  by  having  the  round  part  of  the  back  runner  go  forward 
in  order  to  increase  the  smearing  action  of  the  drag.  The  two  run- 
ners are  usually  spaced  from  about  30  inches  to  36  inches  apart,  and 
are  connected  in  ladder  fashion  by  means  of  cross  stakes  or  rungs. 

The  ends  of  the  rungs  are  ordinarily  fitted  into  2-inch  auger  holes, 
bored  in  the  runners,  and  are  securely  held  in  place  by  means  of  end 
wedges.  The  auger  holes  are  'so  arranged  that  the  runners,  when 
framed  together,  will  be  displaced  in  a longitudinal  direction  with 
resi)ect  to  each  other.  The  object  of  this  displacement,  or  offset  as 
it  is  usually  termed,  is  to  make  the  ends  of  the  front  and  back  run- 
ners follow  approximately  the  same  line  on  the  road  while  the  drag 
is  in  operation.  The  amount  of  displacement,  therefore,  should  de- 
])end  on  the  amount  of  skew  necessary  to  make  the  drag  empty 
itself.  But  since  this  skew  varies  with  the  condition  of  the  road 
surface,  the  proper  offset  to  be  given  to  runners  can  not  be  definitely 
fixed.  Under  ordinary  conditions  an  offset  of  from  about  12  inches 
to  about  16  inches  will  prove  satisfactory. 

In  order  to  make  it  easy  for  a man  to  stand  upon  the  drag  and  to 
shift  his  weight  properly  when  dragging  over  a hard  surface,  the  drag 
should  be  provided  with  two  1-inch  boards  parallel  to  the  runners 
and  nailed  down  to  the  rungs.  These  boards  should  be  about  8 inches 
wide  and  their  length  should  be  slightly  less  than  that  of  the  runners 
of  the  drag. 

The  chain  by  means  of  which  the  drag  is  drawn  should  be  about 
8 feet  long  and  its  links  should  be  made  of  three-eighths-inch  steel. 
On  light  drags  two  trace  chains  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The 
hitching  link,  which  is  designed  so  that  its  position  on  the  chain  may 
be  readily  changed,  should  be  made  of  one-half-inch  steel.  If  de- 
sired, an  ordinary  clevis  may  be  substituted  for  the  hitching  link 
shown  in  the  designs.  It  is  also  well  to  use  a few  half-inch  links  at 
each  end  of  the  chain,  because  the  wear  is  greater  at  these  points. 
It  is  customary  to  fasten  the  chain  to  the  drag  by  running  one  end 
through  a hole  near  the  discharge  end  of  the  front  runner  and  by 
looping  the  other  end  over  the  rung  at  the  cutting  end  of  the  front 
runner.  This  is  a very  simple  way  of  connecting  the  chain,  but  it 
has  the  disadvantage  that  it  tends  to  rack  the  drag  to  pieces,  and  the 
method  of  connection  shown  in  figure  1 is  therefore  to  be  preferred. 

Many  road  drags  constructed  as  above  described,  without  metal 
cutting  edges  or  other  modifications,  have  been  very  satisfactorily 
used  where  the  conditions  were  favorable.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  such  drags  are  effective  only  on  comparatively  soft  road  surfaces. 


THE  ROAD  DRAG  AND  HOW  IT  IS  USED. 


5 


and  to  (liininisli  tliis  limitation  and  also  to  increase  the  life  of  the 
drag  it  is  very  desirable  to  provide  a metal  cutting  edge  for  the  front 
runner.  An  excellent  edge  of  this  kind  may  be  made  from  a strip  of 
iron  or  steel  about  one-fourtli  incli  thick  and  about  4 inches  wide, 
and  even  old  wagon  tires  or  worn-out  grader  blades  have  been  very 
satisfactory. 

The  cutting  edge  may  extend  along  the  entire  length  of  the  front 
runner,  or  it  may  extend  along  only  a part  of  this  length  and  leave 
the  discharge  end  of  the  runner  without  protection.  The  advantage 
of  the  first  method  is  that  tlie  entire  front  runner  is  protected  from 
fraying  and  wearing.  The  second  method  affords  a slight  operating 
advantage  in  that  the  discharge  end  of  the  runner  is  somewhat  better 
adapted  to  spreading  out  and  compacting  the  material  which  it  releases 
while  in  operation.  A sldllful  operator,  however,  can  usually  so 
adjust  the  hitching  link  or  shift  his  weight,  if  he  is  riding  upon  the  drag, 
that  the  discharge  end  of  the  front  runner  will  satisfactorily  spread 
the  material  which  is  moved,  even  when  the  metal-cutting  edge 
extends  throughout  its  length. 

The  design  for  a road  drag  shown  in  figure  2 is  adapted  for  localities 
in  which  sawed  lumber  may  be  readily  obtained.  In  this  design  the 
runners  are  made  of  2 or  2}  inch  boards,  10  inches  wide  and  from  6 
to  8 feet  long,  reinforced  with  other  2-inch  boards  of  the  same  length, 
but  only  6 inches  in  width.  If  more  convenient,  however,  4-inch 
runners  without  reinforcing  boards  may  be  readily  substituted  for 
those  shown.  The  method  of  framing  the  runners  together  is  a 
modification  of  that  described  in  connection  with  the  split-log  type 
of  drag.  In  this  case  only  two  of  the  cross  braces  have  their  ends 
fitted  into  augur  holes  like  rungs,  while  all  other  bracing  is  ‘Alapped’^ 
nto  the  runners  and  secured  by  means  of  nails. 

In  fastening  the  draw-chain  to  a sawed  lumber  drag,  it  is  usually 
advisable  to  run  both  ends  of  the  chain  tlirough  holes  in  the  front 
runner  or  else  make  the  connections  by  means  of  eye  or  hook  bolts, 
as  shown  in  figure  2.  The  reason  for  this  is  tliat  the  sawed  cross 
braces  are  seldom  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  the  pull  of  the  chain 
when  it  is  looped  over  them,  as  is  frequently  done  when  round  timber 
crosspieces  are  used.  If  straight-grained  pieces  are  used  for  the  cross- 
pieces, however,  there  is  no  apparent  reason  why  one  end  of  the  chain 
might  not  be  connected  by  looping  it  around  the  24-inch  square 
crosspiece  near  the  cutting  end. 

In  addition  to  the  two  common  types  of  road  drags  which  have 
already  been  described,  there  are  a number  of  special  types  which 
may  be  advantageously  used  under  certain  circumstances.  For 
example,  a drag  such  as  is  used  by  many  farmers  for  smoothing  over 
newly  plowed  fields  may  be  constructed  by  nailing  together  1-inch 
boards,  siding  fashion,  in  such  manner  that  the  ends  of  the  boards 


6 


FARMERS  BULLETIN  59t 


will  line  up  approximately  with  the  road  when  the  drag  is  properly 
skewed  for  operating.  The  drag  should  be  made  of  boards  about 
5 or  6 feet  long  and  should  be  provided  with  about  four  2 by  4 inch 
cleats  on  the  top  side.  These  cleats  not  only  serve  as  nailing  strips 


for  the  boards,  but  furnish  a very  convenient  means  for  fastening 
the  draw  chain  to  the  drag. 

A drag  constructed  of  boards  as  just  described  may  be  readily 
drawn  by  one  horse,  and  is  sometimes  very  useful  in  securing  a 


THE  ROAD  DRAG  AND  HOW  IT  IS  USED. 


1 


smooth  surface  on  newly  constructed  earth  or  sand-clay  roads. 
One  of  the  two  general  types,  already  described,  however,  is  in 
general  to  be  preferred. 

Several  different  types  of  steel  road  drags  are  now  oji  the  market, 
and  some  of  these  have  been  used  with  very  satisfactory  results. 
One  very  distinct  advantage  which  steel  drags  possess  is  that  they 
may  be  so  constructed  that  the  runners  or  blades  can  be  readily 
shifted  longitudinally  with  respect  to  each  other,  and  thus  adjusted  to 
suit  any  angle  of  skew  at  which  it  is  deemed  desirable  to  run  the 
drag.  The  principal  disadvantage  is  that  the  smearing  action  of  the 
wooden  drag  is  largely  lost.  Steel  drags  are  also  much  more  expensive 
than  those  made  of  wood  or  a combination  of  wood  and  metal,  such 
as  are  shown  in  the  designs  which  have  already  been  described. 

HOW  TO  USE  THE  DRAG. 

The  principal  factor  in  successfully  operating  a properly  con- 
structed road  drag,  provided  that  the  condition  of  the  road  is  favor- 
able, is  skill  on  the  part  of  the  operator.  Such  skill  can  be  obtained 
only  by  intelligent  experience  in  the  use  of  the  drag,  and  no  rules 
can  be  laid  down  which  would  enable  an  inexperienced  operator  to 
produce  first-class  results.  The  following  suggestions  are  intended, 
therefore,  to  serve  rather  as  a guide  to  the  judgment  than  as  a 
criterion  to  be  implicity  followed. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  position  of  the  hitching  link  on 
the  draw  chain  should  be  such  that  the  runners  will  make  an  angle  of 
from  60°  to  75°  with  the  center  line  of  the  road,  or  in  other  words,  a 
skew  angle  of  from  15°  to  30°.  It  is  apparent  that  by  shifting  the 
position  of  the  hitching  link  the  angle  of  skew  may  be  increased  or 
diminished  as  the  conditions  require.  When  dragging  immediately 
over  ruts  or  down  the  center  of  the  road  after  the  sides  have  been 
dragged,  it  is  usually  preferable  to  have  the  hitching  link  at  the 
center  of  the  chain  and  to  run  the  drag  without  skew.  When  the 
principal  purpose  of  the  dragging  is  to  increase  the  crown  of  the  road, 
the  drag  should  be  sufficiently  skewed  to  discharge  all  material  as 
rapidly  as  it  is  collected  on  the  runners.  On  the  other  hand,  if  depres- 
sions occur  in  the  road  surface,  the  skew  may  perhaps  be  advantage- 
ously reduced  to  a minimum,  thus  enabling  the  operator  to  deposit 
the  material  which  collects  in  front  of  the  runners  at  such  points  as 
he  desires  by  lifting  or  otherwise  manipulating  the  drag.  Many  other 
examples  of  conditions  which  require  modifications  in  the  angle  of 
skew  might  easily  be  cited,  but  these  will  readily  suggest  themselves 
to  an  intelligent  operator  as  his  experience  increases. 

The  length  of  hitch  is  another  very  important  consideration  in 
operating  a road  drag.  In  the  designs  which  have  been  discussed  the 
draw  chain  may  be  readily  taken  up  or  let  out  at  either  end  and  the 
length  of  hitch  thus  increased  or  diminished  as  desired.  It  is  imprac- 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  597. 


licablo  to  prescribe  even  an  approximate  i-ule  for  fixing  the  hnigth  of 
hitch,  because  it  is  materially  affected  by  the  hcdght  of  the  t(‘am  and 
the  arrangement  of  the  harness,  as  well  as  by  th(^  condition  of  the 
road  surface.  Experience  will  soon  teach  the  operator,  howev(T, 
wlien  to  shorten  the  hitch  in  order  to  h'sscm  the  amount  of  cutting 
done  by  the  front  runner  and  when  to  lengtlien  it  in  order  to  producer 
the  opposite  effect. 

When  the  road  surface  is  sufficiently  hard  or  the  amount  of  material 
which  it  is  desired  to  have  the  drag  move  is  sufficient  to  warrant  the 
operator  standing  upon  the  drag  while  it  is  in  operation,  he  can 
greatly  facilitate  its  work  by  shifting  his  weight  at  proper  times.  For 
example,  if  it  is  desired  to  have  the  drag  discharge  more  rapidly,  the 
operator  should  move  toward  the  discharge  end  of  the  runners.  This 
will  cause  the  ditch  end  of  the  runners  to  swing  forward  and  thus 
increase  the  skew  angle  of  the  drag.  The  operator  may,  of  course, 
produce  the  opposite  effect  by  moving  his  weight  in  the  opposite 
direction.  In  the  same  way,  he  can  partially  control  the  amount  of 
cutting  which  the  drag  does  by  shifting  his  weight  backward  or  for^ 
ward,  as  the  case  may  be. 

An  intelligent  and  interested  operator  will  soon  learn  many  simple 
ways  by  means  of  which  he  can  easily  control  the  different  features 
of  the  work  which  a drag  performs,  and  he  will  also  learn  to  utilize 
effectively  every  effort  which  his  team  exerts.  Unskilled  or  indiffer- 
ent operators,  on  the  other  hand,  may  do  actual  injury  to  a road  by 
dragging  it  in  an  improper  way,  and  they  generally  waste  a large  part 
of  the  work  which  their  teams  perform.  Cases  are  not  infrequently 
observed  in  which  no  care  whatever  is  exercised  to  see  that  the  team 
is  properly  hitched  to  the  drag  or  to  determine  when  the  operator 
should  ride  and  when  walk.  Very  often  the  operator  seems  to  think 
that  the  drag  is,  or  at  least  ought  to  be,  an  automatic  device,  and  that 
his  function  is  merely  to  drive  and  ride.  It  is  almost  needless  to 
say  that  under  such  conditions  as  these,  the  road  drag  usually  proves 
a failure. 

WHEN  TO  USE  THE  DRAG. 

It  is  fully  as  important  that  a road  be  dragged  at  the  right  time 
as  it  is  that  the  dragging  be  properly  done.  Furthermore,  the  difn- 
culties  involved  in  prescribing  definite  rules  for  determining  when 
dragging  should  be  done  are  equally  as  great  as  those  already  encoun- 
tered in  attempting  to  define  how  it  should  be  done.  Only  very  gen- 
eral statements  concerning  this  feature  of  the  work  can  properly  be 
made  here,  and  much  must  be  left  to  the  experienced  judgment  of 
those  who  decide  when  the  dragging  of  any  particular  road  is  to  be 
started  and  when  it  is  to  be  stopped. 

The  rule  frequently  cited,  that  all  earth  roads  should  be  dragged 
immediately  after  every  rain,  is  in  many  cases  entirely  impracticable 


THE  ROAD  DRAG  AND  HOW  IT  IS  USED, 


9 


and  is  also  very  misleading  because  of  the  conditions  which  it  fails 
to  contemplate.  It  is  true  that  there  are  many  road  surfaces  com- 
posed of  earth  or  earthy  material  which  do  not  become  very  muddy 


under  traliic,  even  during  long  rainy  seasons,  and  since  such  surfaces 
usually  tend  to  harden  very  rapidly  as  soon  as  the  weather  clears  up, 
it  may  be  desirable  to  drag  roads  of  this  kind  immediately  after  a 
rain.  Such  roads,  however,  would  not  ordinarily  need  to  be  dragged 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  597. 


after  every  rain,  because  of  the  strong  tendency  that  they  naturally 
possess  of  holding  their  shape.  On  the  other  hand,  many  varieties 
of  clay  and  soil  tend  to  become  very  muddy  under  only  light  traffic 
after  very  moderate  rains,  and  it  is  evident  that  roads  constructed 
of  such  materials  could  not  always  be  successfully  dragged  immedi- 
ately after  a rain.  Sometimes,  in  fact,  it  may  be  necessary  to  wait 
until  several  consecutive  clear  days  have  elapsed  after  a long  rainy 
spell  before  the  road  is  sufficiently  dried  out  to  keep  ruts  from  form- 
ing almost  as  rapidly  as  they  can  be  filled  by  dragging.  In  many 
cases  of  this  kind,  however,  it  is  possible  greatly  to  improve  the  power 
of  the  road  to  resist  the  destructive  action  of  traffic  during  rainy 
seasons  by  repeatedly  dragging  it  at  the  proper  time. 

Well-constructed  sand-clay  and  topsoil  roads  should  not  often 
become  muddy  after  they  are  once  well  compacted.  They  may 
become  seriously  rutted,  however,  under  heavy  traffic,  during  rainy 
weather,  and  are  almost  sure  to  need  dragging  several  times  each 
year.  Such  roads  should  ordinarily  be  dragged  as  soon  after  a rain 
as  practicable,  as  otherwise  the  surface  soon  becomes  dry  and  hard, 
so  that  it  is  necessary  to  do  considerably  more  dragging  in  order  to 
fill  the  ruts.  Furthermore,  the  material  which  the  drag  moves  will 
not  compact  readily  unless  it  contains  a considerable  amount  of 
moisture. 

Gravel  roads  can  be  effectively  maintained  with  a road  drag  only 
when  the  gravel  composing  the  surface  is  fine  grained  and  contains  a 
considerable  quantity  of  clay  or  earth.  Gravel  road  surfaces  in 
which  this  condition  prevails  not  infrequently  get  badly  out  of  shape 
during  wet  weather,  and  may  sometimes  require  considerably  more 
attention  than  well-constructed  sand-clay  or  topsoil  roads.  The 
time  for  dragging  gravel  roads  is  unquestionably  while  they  are  wet. 
In  fact,  the  best  results  are  sometimes  obtained  by  doing  the  dragging 
after  the  road  has  become  thoroughly  soaked  and  while  it  is  still 
raining. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  best  time  to  drag  any  type  of 
road  is  when  the  material  composing  the  surface  contains  sufficient 
moisture  to  compact  readily  after  it  has  been  moved  by  the  drag  and 
is  not  sufficiently  wet  for  the  traffic  following  the  drag  to  produce 
mud. 

FEATURES  OF  ROAD  CONSTRUCTION  INVOLVED. 

In  order  that  the  maintenance  work  of  the  drag  may  be  effective, 
it  is  essential  that  the  roads  which  are  to  be  maintained  first  be  con- 
structed. The  drag  is,  of  course,  useful  in  smoothing  the  surface  of 
roads  which  are  entirely  unimproved,  but  it  should  not  be  expected 
to  keep  the  surface  of  a road  smooth  and  uniform  until  the  road  has 
first  been  properly  graded,  drained,  and  crowned. 


THE  ROAD  DRAG  AND  HOW  IT  IS  USED. 


11 


Figure  3 shows  typical  cross  sections  for  roads  constructed  of 
earth,  of  sand-clay,  and  of  gravel.  The  sand-clay  section  may  also 
be  used  for  topsoil  roads,  except  that,  as  a rule,  no  material  from  the 
roadbed  is  mixed  into  the  surface  when  topsoil  is  used.  These 
sections  are  all  well  adapted  to  drag  maintenance,  provided  that  they 
are  employed  in  conjunction  with  the  other  essential  features  of  road 
construction.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  no  typical 
section  could  be  shown  which  would  be  applicable  to  all  cases.  The 
character  of  the  material  of  which  the  road  is  constructed,  for  example, 
has  a very  important  bearing  on  the  crown  of  the  surface.  Moreover, 


Fig.  4.— Earth  road  in  Jackson  Township,  Hardin  County,  Iowa,  before  dragging. 

climatic  or  soil  conditions  may  make  it  desirable  to  change  entirely 
the  section  of  the  side  ditches. 

The  only  reason  for  crowning  a road  surface  is  to  enable  it  to  shed 
water,  and  unless  effective  means  are  provided  for  disposing  of  the 
water  after  it  is  drained  off  the  surface  crowning  will  be  of  very  little, 
if  any,  advantage.  The  side  ditches  should  be  amply  large  and 
should  have  sufficient  fall  to  carry  the  water  away  as  rapidly  as  it 
enters  them,  and  they  should  have  outlets  at  all  convenient  points. 
Cross  drains  or  culverts  should  be  constructed  wherever  it  is  desir- 
able to  transfer  drainage  water  across  the  road,  and  they  should  usu- 
ally be  provided  with  end  or  wing  walls  for  protecting  the  slopes  of 
the  embankment.  When  the  material  composing  the  roadbed  is 


12 


FARMERS  ^ BULLETIN  507. 


likely  to  be  springy,  a system  of  longitudinal  underdrainage  may 
be  found  necessary  to  secure  proper  drainage.  In  constructing  a 
road,  of  any  type  whatever,  it  should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind 
that  adequate  and  continually  effective  drainage  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary if  the  road  is  to  be  maintained  in  good  condition. 

Road  surfaces  of  sand-clay  and  topsoil  and  gravel  road  surfaces 
of  the  kind  susceptible  to  drag  maintenance  are  really  nothing  more 
than  modifications  of  the  ordinary  natural  earth  road  surface.  These 
surfaces  are  usually  employed  only  when  the  natural  material  of  the 
roadbed  is  of  an  inferior  quality  of  earth,  such  as  sand,  sticky  clay, 


Fig.  5.— The  earth  road  shown  in  figure  4 after  dragging. 

gumbo,  loam,  or  other  material  which  does  not  tend  to  hold  its  shape 
under  traffic  in  all  conditions  of  weather.  The  methods  of  construct- 
ing these  surfaces  indicated  in  the  accompanying  typical  cross  sec- 
tions (fig.  3)  must  of  course  be  modified  to  suit  local  conditions.  If 
intelligent  care  is  exercised  in  their  construction,  however,  they 
should  become  compact  and  firm  under  traffic,  and  should  be  easily 
maintained  in  a smooth,  uniform  condition  by  means  of  the  road 
drag. 

COST  OF  DRAG  MAINTENANCE. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  road  drags  have  been  widely  used, 
there  are  very  few  reliable  data  available  which  relate  to  the  cost  of 
drag  maintenance.  Furthermore,  most  of  the  data  which  have  been 


THE  ROAD  DRAG  AND  HOW  IT  IS  USED. 


13 


collected  are  difficult  to  interpret,  because  of  the  fact  that  they  do  not 
usually  furnish  sufficient  information  concerning  the  character  of 
the  surface  maintained  or  the  prevailing  climatic  and  traffiic  condi- 
tions to  warrant  any  very  general  deductions.  Sufficient  is  known, 
however,  to  warrant  the  unqualified  statement  that  no  cheaper 
method  than  dragging  has  ever  been  devised  for  maintaining  those 
types  of  roads  for  which  the  drag  is  adapted. 

The  cost  of  constructing  a satisfactory  road  drag  varies  from 
about  $2,  when  a split-log  drag  is  used  and  all  materials  are  con- 
veniently available,  to  perhaps  $10  or  $12,  when  the  drag  is  made 
of  first-class  sawed  lumber,  neatly  finished  in  every  detail  and  painted. 
This  item  of  first  cost  appears  almost  insignificant  when  it  is  con- 


Fig.  6.— Topsoil  road  in  Virginia  before  instituting  drag  maintenance. 

sidered  that  the  life  of  a well-constructed  road  drag  should  be  at 
least  three  or  four  years. 

The  cost  of  operating  a drag  varies,  of  course,  with  the  cost  of 
labor  and  team  hire.  Accurate  data  kept  by  a representative  of 
the  Office  of  Public  Roads  in  Bennington  County,  Vt.,  during  1912 
and  1913,  showed  that  under  favorable  conditions  a road  could  be 
dragged  at  the  rate  of  about  1 mile  per  hour.  This  was  where  the 
road  was  comparatively  well  shaped  and  only  one  trip  in  each  direc- 
tion was  necessary.  Where  more  trips  of  the  drag  were  required, 
the  rate  was,  of  course,  corresjiondingly  diminished.  In  this  county 
teams  with  drivers  cost  from  $3.50  to  $5  per  working  day  of  from  8 
to  10  hours,  and  the  cost  per  mile  for  dragging  a road  one  time 
showed  a corresponding  variation.  The  number  of  draggings  neces- 


14 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  597. 


sary  per  year  varied  over  a wide  range  and  depended  on  the  length 
of  time  that  the  road  had  been  constructed  and  the  character  of 
material  composing  the  surface. 

The  average  cost  per  mile  of  dragging  an  earth  road  8 miles  long 
in  Alexandria  County,  Va.,  during  1911  and  1912  was  $1.25  for  each 
dragging,  including  an  average  of  three  round  trips.  This  road  was 
being  maintained  as  an  experiment  by  the  Office  of  Public  Roads, 
and  the  above  cost  is  based  on  24  draggings  during  the  first  year. 

Probably  the  most  economical  and  efficient  system  of  managing 
drag  maintenance  is  to  assign  definite  sections  of  road  to  each  of 
several  responsible  interested  residents  who  own  teams  and  live 
conveniently  near  the  road.  In  this  way  the  men  and  teams  who 


Fig,  7.— Topsoil  road  shown  in  figure  6 after  instituting  drag  maintenance. 


do  the  dragging  will  be  occupied  in  other  work  when  not  engaged  in 
dragging  the  road,  and  need  be  paid  only  for  the  actual  time  employed. 
This  system  also  creates  a wholesome  spirit  of  rivalry  among 
those  in  charge  of  different  sections  of  road  and  good  results  natu- 
rally follow. 

CONCLUSION. 

In  conclusion  it  seems  well  to  summarize  a few  of  the  principal 
points  which  have  already  been  discussed  at  some  length. 

First,  the  road  drag  is  the  simplest  and  least  expensive  contrivance 
yet  devised  for  maintaining  roads  constructed  of  earth  or  earthy 
material.  Second,  the  successful  operation  of  a road  drag  depends 
to  a very  great  extent  on  the  skill  and  intelligence  of  the  operator. 
Third,  the  time  to  use  the  drag  is  when  the  material  composing  the 


THE  KOAD  DKAO  AND  HOW  IT  IS  USED. 


15 


uad  surface  is  sufficiently  moist  to  compact  readily  under  traffic 
ifter  it  has  been  moved  by  the  drag  and  does  not  contain  sufficient 
moisture  for  the  traffic  following  the  drag  to  produce  mud.  Fourth, 
dragging  can  not  usually  bo  so  arranged  as  to  keep  teams  employed 
all  the  time,  and  it  is  therefore  desirable  to  have  it  done  by  interested 


Fig.  8.— Gravel  road,  Arlington,  Va.,  showing  the  result  of  experimental  drag  maintenance  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads. 

persons  who  can  find  employment  for  themselves  and  teams  when 
they  are  not  engaged  in  dragging. 

Figures  4 to  8,  inclusive,  show  a few  of  the  advantages  which  some 
communities  are  now  deriving  from  the  intelligent  use  of  the  road  drag, 
and  a study  of  these  should  prove  instructive  as  well  as  interesting. 

o 


WASHINGTON  : GOVEKNMENT  I’KINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


l/UwA-  3 ^ 

US. DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


May  22,  1914. 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 


Winter  wheat  condition  and  forecast,  May  1 1 

Wheat  fed  to  live  stock 3 

Outlook  for  1914  foreign  wheat  crop 4 

Rye  condition  and  forecast 6 

Hay  condition  and  stocks 6 

Pastures  condition 7 

Spring  plowing  and  planting 7 

Trend  of  prices  of  farm  products 7 

Honeybees 8 

Beet  sugar  in  the  L^nited  States,  1913 9 

Sources  of  sugar  supply 11 

Hawaiian  sugar  campaign,  final  returns  for  1912-13 12 

Acreage  and  yield  of  cotton  in  1913 13 

Basis  for  interpreting  crop  condition  reports 13 

Crop  conditions  in  Florida  and  California 14 

The  equivalent  in  yield  per  acre  of  100  per  cent  condition  on  June  1 21 


TIME  OF  ISSUANCE  AND  SCOPE  OF  JUNE  CROP  REPORTS. 

A report  regarding  the  condition  of  cotton  on  May  25  will  be  issued  on  Monday, 
ne  1,  1914,  at  noon  (eastern  time). 

A summary  of  the  June  grain  report  will  be  made  public  on  Monday,  June  8,  at  2.15 
m.  (eastern  time).  This  report  will  give  the  preliminary  estimate  of  the  acreage 
,pring  wheat,  oats,  and  barley,  and  the  condition  on  June  1 of  winter  wheat,  spring 
..eat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  and  hay. 

A.  supplemental  report  will  be  issued,  covering  the  following  items:  Condition  on 
ne  1 of  clover,  alfalfa,  pasture,  bluegrass  (for  seed),  sugar  cane,  sugar  beets,  hemp, 
■pies,  peaches,  pears,  blackberries,  raspberries,  cantaloupes,  watermelons,  Canadian 
as,  Lima  beans,  cabbage,  onions,  and  the  acreage  compared  with  that  sown  last 
ar  of  clover  and  sugar  cane. 

‘ WINTER-WHEAT  CONDITION  AND  FORECAST.  MAY  1. 

The  Crop  Reporting  Board  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  (Crop  Esti- 
^ ates),  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  estimates,  from 
e reports  of  correspondents  and  agents  of  the  bureau,  as  follows : 
On  May  1 the  area  of  winter  wheat  to  be  harvested  was  about 
1,387,000  acres,  or  3.1  per  cent  (1,119,000  acres)  less  than  the  area 


44132°— Bull.  598—14 1 


2 


■farmers'  bulletin  598. 


planted  last  autumn,  but  11.6  per  cent  (3,688,000  acres)  more  than 
the  area  harvested  last  year,  viz.,  31,699,000  acres. 

The  average  condition  of  winter  wheat  on  May  1 was  95.9,  com- 
pared with  95.6  on  April  1,  91.9  on  May  1,  1913,  and  85.5,  the  average 
for  the  past  10  years  on  May  1. 

A condition  of  95.9  per  cent  on  May  1 is  indicative  of  a yield  per 
acre  of  approximately  17.8  bushels,  assuming  average  variations  to 
prevail  thereafter.  On  the  estimated  area  to  be  harvested  17.8 
bushels  per  acre  would  produce  630,000,000  bushels,  or  20.3  per  cent 
more  than  in  1913,  57.5  per  cent  more  than  in  1912,  and  46.3  per 
cent  more  than  in  1911.  The  outturn  of  the  crop  will  probably  be 
above  or  below  the  figures  given  above  according  as  the  change  in 
conditions  from  May  1 to  harvest  is  above  or  below  the  average 
change. 

A combination  of  the  largest  acreage  ever  recorded  with  a promise 
of  the  largest  yield  per  acre  ever  recorded  makes  the  present  report 
on  the  condition  of  winter  wheat  noteworthy.  If  the  present  promise 
be  maintained  until  harvest,  the  yield  per  acre,  estimated  to  be  17.8 
bushels,  will  compare  with  an  average  for  the  past  10  years  of  15 
bushels,  the  highest  yield  for  the  period  being  16.7  bushels  in  1906 
and  the  lowest  yield  being  12.4  bushels.  During  the  past  20  years 
there  has  been  a gradual  tendency  toward  an  increase  in  yield  per 
acre. 

One  feature  of  the  situation  is  that  there  is  not  a single  State  in 
which  the  win  ter- wheat  prospect  is  unfavorable.  Last  fall  was  favor- 
able for  wheat  seeding  and  an  unusually  large  area  was  seeded.  The 
condition  of  the  crop  on  December  1 was  given  as  97.2  per  cent  of 
normal,  the  highest  figm'e  of  the  past  10  years,  89.2  being  the  average 
for  the  period.  It  is  thus  observed  that  the  crop  entered  the  winter 
with  a very  good  start.  The  winter  proved  to  be  almost  ideal. 
Practically  no  complaints  have  been  made  of  ice  smothering,  heaving 
out  from  freezing  and  thawing,  etc.  During  the  severe  part  of  winter 
the  crop  was  well  protected  by  snow,  and  since  the  breaking  of  winter 
the  temperature  has  been  cool,  and  moisture  suflicient  to  maintain 
the  crop  in  almost  normal  condition. 

The  forecast  from  the  acreage  and  condition  report  as  of  May  1,  630 
million  bushels,  compares  with  524  milfions,  the  final  estimate  of  last 
year’s  crop,  which  exceeded  any  previous  crop.  The  largest  esti- 
mated production  before  last  year  was  493  millions,  estimated  in  1906. 
The  smallest  crop  of  the  past  10  years  was  that  of  1904,  with  333 
millions. 

No  human  agency  can  foretell  what  will  befall  the  crop  before  it  is 
gathered;  the  present  forecast  is  based  upon  the  experience  of  the 
past.  If  conditions  continue  very  favorable,  the  final  outturn  may 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


3 


be  larger  than  the  amount  forecast,  or  conditions  can  arise  which 
would  result  in  a decidedly  smaller  outturn  than  the  present  forecast. 

Interpretations  of  crop  condition  figures  have  been  made  for  three 
years.  Last  year  the  May  1 condition  of  winter  wheat  was  inter- 
preted as  forecasting  a yield  of  16.6  bushels  per  acre;  the  final  esti- 
mate was  16.5,  a reduction  of  less  than  1 per  cent.  In  1912  the  May 
forecast  was  14.4  bushels  per  acre,  the  final  estimate  15.1,  an  advance 
of  5 per  cent.  In  1911  the  May  forecast  was  15.6  bushels  and  the 
final  outturn  was  14.8,  a reduction  of  5 per  cent. 

The  average  price  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  on  May  1 was  83.1 
cents  a bushel,  a decUne  of  1.1  cents  smce  Apiil  1;  the  price  on  May 
1 last  year  was  80.9  cents,  two  years  ago  99.7  cents,  and  three  years 
ago  84.6  cents.  The  price  is  generally  lower  than  a year  ago  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River  and  higher  than  a year  ago  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River. 

A report  upon  spring  wheat  will  not  be  made  until  June.  The 
production  of  spring  wheat  in  1913  was  240  million  bushels;  in  1912, 
330  million;  in  1911,  191  milhon;  in  the  past  five  years,  an  annual 
average  of  250  million.  This  figure  added  to  the  forecast  of  winter 
wheat,  namely,  630  millions,  makes  880  millions,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a theoretical  forecast  of  total  wheat  crop. 

Although  a large  crop  is  forecast  this  year,  the  amount  of  carry-over 
from  the  1912  crop  will  probably  be  small  because  of  the  unusually 
large  amount  of  wheat  used  as  animal  feed  during  the  past  season. 

Details  by  States  are  given  on  page  15. 


WHEAT  FED  TO  LIVE  STOCK. 

The  wheat  crop  of  1913  in  the  United  States  was  estimated  at  763 
million  bushels,  as  compared  with  730  millions  in  1912 — an  increase 
of  33  million  bushels.  The  amount  of  old  wheat  carried  into  the 
crop  year  of  1913  was  approximately  90  million  bushels,  as  compared 
with  78  milhons  in  the  preceding  year,  or  12  millions  more.  Thus, 
the  apparent  supply  for  the  1913  crop  season  was  45  million  bushels 
more  than  for  the  preceding  season. 

Notwithstanding  this  apparently  larger  supply  of  45  million  bush- 
els, the  estimated  stocks  of  wheat  on  March  1 last  were  about  32  mil- 
lion bushels  less  than  on  March  1,  1913,  farm  stocks  on  March  1 
being  estimated  at  5 million  bushels  less,  in  interior  mills  and  ele- 
vators 20  millions  less,  and  commercial  visible  stocks  7 millions  less 
than  in  the  preceding  year. 

That  is,  comparing  the  two  crop  seasons,  the  1913  season  appar- 
ently had  45  milhon  more  bushels  than  the  1912  season;  but  on 
March  1 of  the  1913  season  there  appeared  to  be  32  million  bushels 


4 


FARMEKS^  BULLETIN  598. 


less  on  hand  than  on ‘March  1 of  the  1912  season — a difference  of  77 
milhon  bushels  to  be  accounted  for. 

Increased  exports  can  account  for  7 millions  of  the  above  77  mil- 
lions; normal  increase  of  consumption  from  natural  growth  of  the 
country  can  account  for  about  11  millions;  an  increased  amount  of 
seed  used  for  seeding  the  enlarged  winter  wheat  area  can  account  for 
5 million  bushels^ — a total  of  23  milhons  accounted  for,  leaving  54 
millions  unaccounted  for.  This  difference  may  result  from  inaccuracy 
in  some  of  the  estimates,  from  an  increase  in  the  per  capita  con- 
sumption, or  from  some  unusual  use  made  of  the  crop. 

An  unusual  feature  of  the  past  season  has  been  a large  wheat  pro- 
duction coincident  with  a practical  failure  of  the  corn  crop  in  Kan- 
sas and  adjacent  States.  In  Kansas  the  wheat  production  last  year 
was  87  million  bushels,  compared  with  an  average  of  71  millions  in 
the  preceding  four  years;  whereas  the  corn  production  was  only  23 
millions,  as  compared  with  an  average  of  156  millions  for  the  preced- 
ing four  years.  The  price  of  wheat  and  corn  in  Kansas  has  been 
about  the  same  during  the  past  season,  and  in  many  counties  wheat 
has  been  the  cheaper;  normally  wheat  is  30  to  35  cents  per  bushel 
dearer  than  corn.  In  consequence  of  the  relative  plentifulness  and 
cheapness  of  wheat,  and  the  scarcity  and  dearness  of  corn,  much 
more  wheat  was  used  'on  farms  for  animal  feed  than  usual.  The  ex- 
tent of  such  use  is  not  definitely  known.  Ordinarily  about  2 per 
cent  of  the  entire  wheat  crop  is  estimated  to  be  fed  to  animals. 

Recently  the  county  correspondents  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics 
(Crop  Estimates)  in  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Oklahoma,  and  Missouri  were 
requested  to  estimate  the  percentage  of  the  wheat  crop  of  the  past 
year  that  would  be  consumed  on  farms  as  feed.  The  Kansas  corre- 
spondents estimated  12.6  per  cent,  Nebraska  14.7  per  cent,  Oklahoma 
21  per  cent,  and  Missouri  14.4  per  cent.  Applying  these  percentages 
to  the  wheat  production  of  these  States  gives  a total  of  29  milhon 
bushels;  these  States  produced  206  millions  of  last  year’s  total  crop 
of  763  milhons  for  the  United  States.  If  29  milhon  bushels  of  wheat 
were  fed  to  live  stock  in  these  four  States,  whereas  in  a normal  year 
only  4 or  5 milhon  bushels  would  be  so  fed,  it  is  reasonable  to  esti- 
mate that  this  year  in  the  entire  United  States  about  40  to  45  milhon 
bushels  more  than  the  normal  amount  of  wheat  were  fed  to  hve 
stock.  This  would  leave  9 to  14  milhons  not  otherwise  accounted 
for,  which,  however,  is  a small  difference. 


. THE  OUTLOOK  FOR  THE  1914  FOREIGN  WHEAT  CROP. 

At  the  beginning  of  May  the  general  wheat  prospect  abroad  pre- 
sented few  features  materially  different  from  those  of  ordinary  years. 
In  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  where  each  calendar  year  the  first  of 


THE  AGRICI^LTUEAL  OUTLOOK. 


5 


the  world  harvests  take  place,  the  two  principal  producing  coun- 
tries, Argentina  and  Australia,  have  given  a total  }deld  of  231,685,000 
bushels  against  293,295,000  bushels  the  year  before.  The  distribu- 
tion of  production  between  the  two  countries  was:  Argentina, 
117,758,000  (revised)  in  1914  against  198,414,000  bushels  in  the 
preceding  year,  and,  by  the  same  comparison,  Australia  113,927,000 
bushels  against  94,880,000.  In  both  countries  seeding  is  now  in 
progress  under  fairly  favorable  conditions  for  next  winter’s  har- 
vest. There  have,  however,  been  complaints  at  times  of  excessive 
rain,  deleterious  particularly  to  the  ripened  maize  crop  in  Argentina. 
Some-  increase  is  expected  this  year  in  each  country  in  the  total 
acreage  under  all  crops,  but  none  is  anticipated  in  the  wheat  area. 
The  1914  wheat  crop  of  New  Zealand  has  also  been  a good  one,  the 
yield  being  officially  put  at  200,000  bushels  above  that  of  the  pre- 
vious year.  In  British  India,  where  occurs,  annually,  the  first 
important  wheat  harvest  north  of  the  equator,  the  acreage  now 
being  cut  has  been  officially  estimated  at  25,500,000  acres,  con>- 
pared  with  29,716,000  acres  last  year,  a decrease  of  3,822,000  acres, 
or  13  per  cent.  Harvest,  though  at  times  disturbed  in  parts  by 
heavy  rains,  has,  for  the  most  part,  been  during  propitious  weather. 
No  quantitative  estimates  of  yields  are  yet  available,  but  it  is  nota- 
ble that  exports  thus  far  are  very  limited.  Spring  seeding  in  Can- 
ada seems  to  have  been  retarded  by  wet  weather  in  April,  and  indi- 
cations are  for  no  extension  of  the  spring  wheat  area  over  that  of 
last -year. 

The  prospects  for  the  European  wheat  crop  are,  as  a whole,  fuUy 
up  to  the  standard  for  the  season.  The  total  acreage,  owing  to 
increased  sowings  in  Russia  and  Roumania,  is  expected  to  exceed 
that  of  last  year,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  fields  in  almost 
all  countries  is  reported  to  be  of  good  promise.  In  Great  Britain 
there  has  been  an  increase  of  about  4 per  cent  in  acreage.  The  con- 
dition of  the  plants  is,  for  the  most  part,  satisfactory.  In  France  an 
unusually  large  proportion  of  the  winter  wheat  has  been  frozen  out, 
and  as  the  weather  has  not  been  altogether  favorable  to  spring  sow- 
ings the  acreage  is  expected  to  be  less  than  that  of  either  of  the  past 
two  years.  The  appearance  of  vegetation,  particularly  in  the  north, 
is  not  all  that  is  desired,  though  it  improved  greatly  in  April.  The 
popular  belief  is  that  France  will  at  the  best  not  produce  a large  crop 
this  season.  The  acreage  under  winter  wheat  in  Italy  is  normal  and 
in  Spain  3^  per  cent  less  than  last  year.  Excepting  some  local  com- 
plaints of  dry  weather,  the  present  outlook  in  both  countries  is  satis- 
factory: In  Belgium,  Denmark,  and  Germany  the  growing  crops 
receive^  favorable  mention,  though  a rather  dry  April  now  makes  felt 
in  many  parts  urgent  necessity  for  additional  rain.  In  central  and 
southeastern  Europe  the  only  discordant  notes  in  a general  harmony 
of  favorable  crop  reports  are  complaints  of  an  unsatisfactory  condi- 


6 


farmers'  bulletin  598. 


tion  of  the  growing  Hungarian  wheat  and  a decrease,  owing  to  unfa- 
vorable weather  last  fall,  in  the  sowings  of  Bulgaria.  Although  there 
are  no  definite  official  reports  from  Russia,  the  tone  of  local  and  com- 
mercial reports  is  very  hopeful,  and  the  present  popular  expectation 
seems  to  be,  if  present  conditions  are  maintained,  for  a yield  exceed- 
ing that  of  any  previous  year. 


RYE. 

The  average  condition  of  rye  on  May  1 was  93.4,  compared  with 
91.3  on  April  1,  91  on  May  1,  1913,  and  89.4,  the  average  for  the  past 
10  years  on  May  1.  The  condition  of  the  crop  is  high  in  every  State. 
A condition  of  93.4  may  be  interpreted  as  forecasting  a yield  per  acre 
of  about  17.1  bushels,  which  compares  with  a final  estimate  of  16.2 
last  year,  16.8  two  years  ago,  and  16.2,  the  average  of  the  past  10 
years.  The  yield  per  acre  of  rye  has  not  varied  widely  from  year  to 
year,  the  lowest  yield  per  acre  since  1900  being  15.1  bushels  (in  1900), 
and  the  highest  17  bushels  in  1902.  An  estimate  of  tlie  acreage  to 
be  harvested,  to  which  to  apply  the  forecast  of  yield  per  acre  to  ob- 
tain a total  production  figure,  has  not  been  made.  The  acreage 
planted  for  grain  last  fall  was  2,702,000  acres,  compared  ’^vitli 
2,731,000  sown  in  the  fall  of  1912.  During  the  past  five  years  the 
estimated  area  harvested  has  been  8 per  cent  less  than  the  estimated 
area  sown  for  grain.  A yield  per  acre  of  17.1  bushels  on  8 per  cent 
less  area  than  sown  for  grain  last  fall  would  produce  42,500,000 
bushels,  which  compares  with  last  year’s  final  estimate  of  41,381,000 
and  the  estimate  two  years  ago  of  35,664,000. 

Details  by  States  are  given  on  page  15. 


HAY. 

The  average  condition  of  meadow  (hay)  lands  on  May  1 was  90.9, 
compared  with  88.5  on  May  1,  1913,  and  a 10-year  average  on  May  1 
of  88.1. 

A condition  of  90.9  on  May  1 may  be  interpreted  as  forecasting  a 
yield  per  acre  of  about  1.46  tons,  which  compares  with  a final  estimate 
of  1.31  tons  produced  last  year  and  an  average  yield  in  the  past  10 
years  of  1.40  tons.  The  hay  prospects  on  May  1 were  more  or  less 
promising  in  every  State.  An  estimate  of  the  acreage  wiU  not  be 
made  until  August. 

The  stocks  of  old  hay  on  farms  on  May  1 are  estimated  as  7,832,000 
tons  (12.2  per  cent  of  the  crop),  against  10,828,000  tons  (14.9  per 
cent)  on  May  1,  1913,  and  4,744,000  tons  (8.6  per  cent)  on  May  1, 
1912.  The  average  price  of  hay,  $12.32  on  May  1 this  year,  $11.13 
last  year,  and  $17.64  two  years  ago,  reflects  this  difference  in  stocks 
of  hay  on  hand. 

Details  by  States  are  given  on  page  16. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK.  7 

PASTURES. 

^ Pastures,  although  above  average  condition  on  May  1 for  the  entu*e 
United  States,  are  not  so  uniformly  favorable  in  the  different  States 
as  are  wheat,  n^e,  and  meadows.  In  17  of  tlie  48  States  the  condi- 
tion figure  was  more  or  less  below  the  lO-year  average,  in  4 States 
the  condition  is  the  same  as  the  10-year  average,  and  in  27  States 
the  condition  was  above  the  10 -year  average.  Where  the  conditions 
are  lowest,  generally  in  the  Atlantic  Coast  States,  the  cause  is  the 
late  sprmg  and  consequent  late  starting  of  grass.  Conditions  are 
particularly  good  in  the  Pacific  Coast  States. 

Details  by  States  are  shown  on  page  17. 


SPRING  PLOWING  AND  PLANTING. 

So  much  plowing  was  accomplished  last  autumn  that,  notwith- 
standing the  tardiness  of  spring,  the  total  amount  of  plowing  and 
planting  for  spring-sown  crops  by  May  1 was  slightly  more  than  the 
average.  About  70.9  per  cent  of  the  plowuig  was  completed  by 
May  1,  compared  with  67.2  per  cent  on  May  1,  1913,  and  a 10-year 
average  on  May  1 of  06.6. 

Of  spring  planting,  56.4  per  cent  was  completed  up  to  ^lay  1, 
compared  with  57  per  cent  on  May  1,  1913,  and  an  8-year  average 
on  May  1 of  54.6.  This  work  is  generally  backward  in  the  North 
Atlantic  Coast  States  and  down  to  South  Carolina,  also  in  the  North- 
ern States,  Wisconsin,  Mmnesota,  North  Dakota,  and  South  Dakota, 
but  about  up  to  the  average  or  somewhat  better  m nearly  all  other 
sections  of  the  United  States. 

Details  by  States  are  printed  on  page  17. 


TREND  OF  PRICES  OF  FARM  PRODUCTS. 

The  level  of  prices  paid  producers  of  the  United  States  for  the 
principal  crops  increased  about  1.3  per  cent  during  April;  in  the  past 
six  years  the  price  level  has  increased  during  April  3.2  per  cent; 
thus,  the  increase  this  year  is  less  than  usual. 

Since  December  1 the  index  figure  of  crop  prices  has  advanced 
2 A per  cent;  during  the  same  period  a year  ago  the  advance  was 
5.3  per  cent,  and  the  average  for  the  past  six  years  has  been  an  advance 
of  11.1  per  cent. 

On  May  1 the  index  figure  of  crop  prices  was  about  17  per  cent 
higher  than  a year  ago,  but  18.3  per  cent  lower  than  two  years  ago 
and  1.3  per  cent  higher  than  the  average  of  the  past  six  years  on 
May  1. 

The  level  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of  the  United  States  for 
meat  animals  increased  0.4  per  cent  during  the  month  from  March  15 
to  April  15,  which  compares  with  an  increase  of  3.7  per  cent  in  the 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  598. 


same  period  a year  ago,  an  increase  of  10.7  per  cent  two  years  ago^^ 
a decrease  of  4.7  per  cent  three  years  ago,  and  an  increase  of  4.8  per 
cent  four  years  ago. 

From  December  15  to  April  15  the  advance  in  pj rices  for  meat 
animals  has  been  8 per  cent;  whereas  during  the  same  period  a year 
ago  the  advance  was  14.5  per  cent,  and  two  years  ago  17.3  per  cent, 
while  three  years  ago  there  was  a decline  in  price  of  6.6  per  cent 
during  this  period. 

On  April  15  the  average  (weighted)  price  of  meat  animals — 
hogs,  cattle,  sheep,  and  chickens^ — was  $7.40  per  100  pounds,  which 
is  0.7  per  cent  higher  than  the  prevailing  price  a year  ago,  17.5  per 
cent  higher  than  two  years  ago,  27.6  per  cent  higher  than  three  years 
ago,  and  4.4  per  cent  lower  than  four  years  ago  on  April  15. 

A tabulation  of  prices  is  shown  on  pages  18-20. 


HONEYBEES. 

The  Bureau  of  Statistics  (Crop  Estimates)  on  May  1 made  an 
inquiry  regarding  the  number  of  colonies  of  honeybees,  their  condi- 
tion, and  the  condition  of  the  principal  nectar-bearing  plants.  The 
inquiry  covered  the  additional  subjects  of  the  principal  nectar-pro- 
ducing plants  in  the  different  sections  and  the  approximate  dates  of 
nectar  flow  of  each. 

As  this  is  the  first  inquiry  on  this  subject,  and  no  comparisons 
exist  based  on  previous  inquiries  by  the  Bureau,  it  is  difficult  to 
draw  conclusions,  except  in  a most  general  way. 

The  number  of  colonies  of  bees  in  the  United  States  this  year, 
spring  count,  appears  to  be  about  4 per  cent  above  the  number  last 
year,  and  2 per  cent  above  recent  years.  Decreases  compared  both 
with  last  year  and  recent  years  are  reported  in  the  New  England 
States,  Pennsylvania,  Georgia,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Missis- 
sippi, Louisiana,  and  California.  The  loss  in  California  and  in  a 
majority  of  the  other  States  named  was  due  to  a severe  epidemic 
of  foul-brood  disease.  Increases  are  particularly  marked  in  the 
North  Central,  Kocky  Mountain,  and  Pacific  Coast  States,  except 
as  already  noted. 

The  condition  of  the  colonies  is  reported  to  be  about  98  per  cent  of 
a normal,  taking  the  United  States  as  a whole.  The  condition  is 
about  5 per  cent  above  normal,  however,  in  the  Kocky  Mountain 
and  Pacific  Coast  States.  The  condition  of  colonies  compared  with 
last  spring  is  about  4 per  cent  better,  being  reported  as  inferior  only 
in  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Virginia,  West  Virginia, 
Georgia,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  and  Mississippi. 
It  is  generally  better  than  last  spring  in  the  North  Central  States,  and 
very  much  better  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  Coast  States. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK. 


9 


The  condition  of  nectar-hearing  ])lants  averages  about  99  per 
cent  of  a normal  for  the  United  States  as  a whole,  ranging  in  the 
neighborhood  of  95  in  all  the  countiy  east  of  the  Rockies,  excepting 
Texas,  where  it  is  115,  and  about  105  per  cent  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
and  Pacific  Coast  States,  being  highest,  120  per  cent,  in  California. 
Compared  with  last  year,  the  condition  of  nectar-bearing  plants 
averages  3 per  cent  higher  for  the  United  States,  being  generally 
slightly  below  last  year  east  of  the  Rockies,  except  in  Texas,  where  it 
is  50  ])er  cent  better,  and  decidedly  better  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
and  Pacific  Coast  States,  reaching  the  very  high  figure  of  175  per 
cent  compared  with  last  year  in  California,  where  moisture  conditions 
in  the  white-sage  country  presage  a bountiful  nectar  flow. 

In  the  important  honey-producing  States  of  Texas,  Colorado,  and 
California  the  outlook  is  very  promising,  showing  numbers  of  colonies 
compared  with  recent  years  of  115,  115,  and  85,  and  compared  with 
last  year  of  112,  120,  and  93  per  cent,  respectively;  colony  conditions 
compared  with  normal  of  115,  110,  and  107,  and  compared  with  last 
year  of  120,  110,  and  125  per  cent;  and  condition  of  nectar-producing 
plants  compared  with  normal  of  115,  107,  and  120,  and  compared 
with  last  year  of  150,  107,  and  175  per  cent,  respectively. 

The  number  of  colonies  in  the  white-clover  belt  of  the  North  Cen- 
tral States  is  at  least  5 per  cent  above  the  number  last  year,  and,  taken 
as  a whole,  the  condition  of  the  colonies  is  equal  to  that  of  last  year; 
but  the  condition  of  nectar  plants  in  these  States  is  reported  as  not 
quite  so  good  as  last  year,  due  partly  to  a late  spring  and  partly  to 
loss  of  clover  from  the  drought  in  some  sections. 

An  inquiry  will  be  made  in  July  regarding  honey  production,  and 
another  inquiry  on  the  same  subject  will  be  made  later  in  the  season. 
It  is  hoped  in  the  meantime  to  secure  the  agreement  of  a large  number 
of  experienced  and  up-to-date  beekeepers  to  furnish  reports  on  the 
honey  crop  in  order  that  the  estimates  may  be  approximately  correct 
and  therefore  of  real  value  to  honey  producers  and  others  interested. 

Details  by  States  are  given  on  page  17. 


BEET  SUGAR  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1913. 

The  beet-sugar  output  of  the  United  States  for  the  campaign 
beginning  in  the  fall  of  1913  was  the  largest  on  record.  It  amounted 
to  733,401  short  tons,  which  was  40,845  in  excess  of  the  large  yield  of 
1912.  There  were  71  factories  in  operation  in  1913-14,  or  two  less 
than  during  the  preceding  campaign,  while  the  average  length  of  the 
campaign  was  85  days  in  1913-14,  practically  the  same  as  in  1912-13. 

The  beets  used  in  the  factories  in  1913-14  amounted  to  5,659,462 
tons,  and  were  grown  upon  580,006  acres.  The  average  value  of  the 
44132°— Bull.  598—14 2 


10 


j'ARIviSRS^-^llH^LLiiTIN  508. 


beets  per  ton  was  $5.34,  and  the  total  amount  received  farmers 
for  this  product  amounted  to  $30,222,000.  In  the  ])ieceding  cam- 
paign, 1912-13,  the  farm  value  of  the  beets  used  for  sugar  amounted 
to  $30,406,000,  the  average  price  being  $5.82  per  ton. 

Details  of  the  beet-sugar  campaign  for  the  past  three  years  in  each 
principal  State  and  in  the  United  States  are  shown  in  Table  1 . 

Table  1. — Sugar-beet  and  beet-sugar  'production  in  the  United  States,  1911-1913. 


State,  and  year 
of  beet  harvest. 

Fac- 

Aver- 

age 

Sugar 

Beets  used. 

Analysis  of 
beets. 

Average  ex- 
traction of 
sugar. 

in 

oper- 

ation. 

length 

of 

cam- 

paign. 

made 

(chiefly 

refined). 

Area. 

Aver- 

age 

yield 

per 

acre. 

Produc- 

tion. 

Aver- 

age 

price 

per 

ton. 

Per- 
cent- 
age 
of  su- 
er ose.i 

Pu- 

rity 

coeffi- 

cient.2 

Per- 

cent- 

age 

of 

beets. 

Per 

short 

ton 

of 

beets. 

California: 

No. 

Days. 

Tom.^ 

Acres. 

Tons.^ 

Tons.^ 

Dolts. 

P.  ct. 

P.ct. 

P.ct. 

Lhs. 

1913 

12 

99 

171,208 

127,610 

8. 92 

1,138,003 

6.10 

18.04 

86.  26 

15.05 

301 

1912 

11 

90 

158,904 

111,416 

99,545 

9.01 

1,004,328 

6.  46 

18.  79 

83.99 

15.  82 

316 

1911 

Colorado: 

1913 

10 

98 

161,300 

10. 42 

1,037,283 

5. 54 

18.95 

82.04 

15.55 

311 

14 

96 

229,274 

168, 410 

10. 93 

1,840,653 

5. 67 

14.  92 

84. 01 

12.  46 

249 

1912 

17 

91 

216,010 
124, 800 

144,999 

11.32 

1,641,861 

5.  96 

16. 19 

84.  81 

13. 16 

263 

1911 

14 

63 

86,437 

11. 07 

957, 142 

5. 55 

15.  44 

81.22 

13. 04 

261 

Idaho: 

1913 

4 

77 

29,620 

22, 497 

9.90 

222,612 

4.99 

16.  24 

86.  35 

13.  31 

266 

1912 

4 

64 

24,761 

19, 952 

8.  55 

170,619 

5.18 

17.37 

88.01 

14.51 

290 

1911 

* 3 

91 

26,  730 

17,052 

12.11 

206,367 

5.02 

16.65 

88.26 

12. 95 

259 

Michigan: 

1 

1913 

15 

82 

122, 424 

107,965 

8.85 

955,242 

5.93 

15.  82 

82.  61 

12.  82 

2.56 

1912 

16 

74 

95, 049 

124,241 

6.  75 

838, 784 

5.69 

14.  72 

83.  75 

11.33 

227 

1911 

17 

122 

125,500 

145, 837 

9.90 

1, 443, 856 

5.  74 

14. 59 

80.00 

8.69 

174 

Ohio: 

1913 

5 

80 

28, 687 

30,661 

7. 84 

240,  435 

5.34 

14.  46 

82. 95 

11.93 

239 

1912 

5 

91 

28,503 

27,062 

9.  72 

263,005 

5.31 

13. 95 

81.36 

10. 84 

217 

Utah: 

1913 

7 

90 

57, 231 

39, 472 

12.  21 

481,863 

4.  81 

15. 07 

83.86 

12.  08 

242 

1912 

6 

97 

59, 571 

37,000 

12. 03 

445, 130 

4. 90 

16.37 

86.  29 

13. 38 

168 

1911 

6 

96 

57, 280 

33, 950 

13.  03 

442,310 

4.  81 

15. 98 

86. 10 

12.95 

259 

Wisconsin: 

1913 

4 

57 

12,  553 
23,  260 

11,800 
20, 172 

9.  66 

114,000 

207,085 

5.  80 

14. 10 

11.01 

220 

1912 

4 

91 

10.27 

5.  84 

15. 10 

84.31 

11.23 

225 

1911 

4 

106 

23, 640 

23, 241 

11.02 

256, 124 

5.51 

14.23 

81.00 

9.23 

185 

other  States:  * 

1913 

10 

68 

82,  404 

71,591 

9.31 

666, 654 

5.  66 

14.99 

81.89 

12.  36 

247 

1912 

10 

78 

86,  498 

70, 458 

9.28 

653, 565 

5.82 

16.  37 

83.89 

13.  23 

265 

19115 

12 

83 

80, 250 

67,815 

10.61 

719,251 

5.  48 

1.5. 16 

84.51 

11. 16 

223 

United  States: 

1913 

. 71 

85 

733,  401 

580,006 

9.  76 

5,659, 462 

5.34 

15.  78 

83.22 

12.  96 

259 

1912 

73 

86 

692, 556 

555, 300 

9.41 

5,224,377 

5.  82 

16.31 

84.49 

13.  26 

265 

1911 

66 

94 

599, 500 

473, 877 

10.  68 

5,062,333 

5.  50 

15.89 

82.21 

11.84 

237 

1 Based  upon  weight  of  beets. 

2 Percentage  of  sucrose  (pure  sugar)  in  the  total  soluble  solids  of  the  beets. 

3 Short  tons  (2,000  pounds). 

< The  10  factories  in  “Other  States”  in  1912  and  1913  were  located  as  follows:  Indiana,  1;  Illinois,  1;  Min- 
nesota, 1;  Iowa,  1;  Nebraska,  2;  Kansas,  1;  Montana,  1;  Nevada,  1;  and  Arizona,  1. 

6 Including  Ohio  in  1911. 


About  2,500  pounds  of  refined  sugar  are  3fielded  on  an  average  by 
an  acre  of  beets,  and  for  each  ton  of  beets  the  average  for  the  past 
three  years  has  ranged  from  237  to  265  pounds  of  refined  sugar. 

Sugar  beets  yielded  during  the  past  three  years  from  9.41  to  10.68 
short  tons  per  acre,  and  were  worth  from  $52.12  to  $58.74  per  acre. 

The  average  output  per  factory  increased  from  9,083  short  tons  of 
sugar  in  1911-12  to  10,330  short  tons  in  1913-14.  The  average  quan- 


THE  AGRICULTlJfiAI^.QyTLOOK. 


11 


tity  of  beets  used  by  each  factory  ranged  from  71,567  to  79,711  tons, 
and  the  area  from  wliich  each  factory  drew  its  supply  of  beets  ranged 
from  7,180  to  8,168  acres. 


Table  2. — Average  results  per  acre  and  per  factory  in  the  beet-sugar  industry  of  the  United 

States,  1911-1913. 


Year  of  l^eet  harvest. 

Average 
yield, 
beets  per 
acre. 

Average  sugar 
made. 

I 

Average  per  factory. 

Average  farm  value 
of  beets. 

Per  short 
ton  of 
beets. 

Per  acre 
of  beets. 

Area  har- 
vested. 

Beets 

used. 

Sugar 

made. 

Per  ton. 

Per  acre. 

Tons! 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Acres. 

Tons.'^ 

Tons.^ 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

1913 

9.  76 

259 

2,517 

8, 168 

79,711 

10,330 

5.34 

52. 12 

1912 

9.  41 

265 

2,496 

7,607 

71,567 

9,487 

5.82 

54.  77 

1911 

10.  68 

237 

2,  529 

7,180 

76. 702 

9. 083 

5.  50 

58.  74 

1 Short  tons  (2,000  pounds). 

SOURCES  OF  SUGAR  SUPPLY. 


The  total  amount  of  sugar  produced  within  the  United  States 
proper  from  the  crops  of  1913  exceeded  1,000,000  tons.  In  the 
previous  year,  owing  to  the  crop  failure  in  Louisiana,  the  sugar  pro- 
duction of  the  United  States  proper  was  only  about  855,000  tons, 
and  two  years  ago  this  production  amounted  to  960,000  tons. 

The  average  consumption  of  sugar  in  the  United  States  for  the  two 
fiscal  years  beginning  1911  and  1912  was  about  4,000,000  short  tons. 
Of  this  amount  45  per  cent  in  the  first  year  and  55  per  cent  in  the 
second  consisted  of  foreign  sugar,  while  30  and  24  per  cent,  respec- 
tively, represented  sugar  received  from  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  and  the 
Philippine  Islands;  the  sugar  of  domestic  production  constituted  25 
and  20  per  cent,  respectively,  of  the  total  supply.  Domestic  beet 
sugar  constituted  in  1911-12,  15  per  cent  of  the  total  supply,  and  in 
1912-13,  16  per  cent,  while  Louisiana  cane  sugar  was  represented  in 
the  former  year  by  9 and  in  the  latter  by  4 per  cent  of  the  total  supply 
of  all  sugar  in  the  United  States  for  those  years. 

Taking  the  total  domestic  production  as  a basis,  beet  sugar  con- 
stituted, in  1913-14,  71  per  cent  and  cane  sugar  29  per  cent.  In 
1912-13  and  1911-12  beet  sugar  formed  81  and  62  per  cent,  respec- 
tively, of  the  total  domestic  production,  while  cane  sugar  formed  19 
and  38  per  cent,  respectively.  Of  the  total  domestic  production  of 
the  past  three  years,  71  per  cent  consisted  of  beet  sugar  and  29  per 
cent  cane.  It  is  to  be  understood  that  in  this  paragraph  domestic 
production  refers  to  the  United  States  proper  and  does  not  include 
any  of  the  insular  possessions. 


12 


- FARlV/iRfe^^WLL'ETIN  598, 


Table  3. — Quantity  and  sources  of  the  sugar  supply  of  the  United  States. 
[In  tons  of  2,000  pounds.] 


Year  beginning  July  1. 

Domestic  production. 

Received 
from 
Hawaii, 
Porto  Rico, 
and 

Philippine 
Islands  2 
(chiefly 
raw). 

Imports 

from 

foreign 

countries, 

less 

exports 

(chiefly 

raw). 

Retained 
and  re- 
ceived for 
consump- 
tion. 

Beet 

sugar 

(chiefly 

refined). 

Cane  sugar  (chiefly 
raw). 

Total  do- 
mestic pro- 
duction. 

Louisi- 

ana. 

Texas.  1 

1913 

Tons. 
733, 401 
692, 556 
599, 500 

Tons. 
292, 698 
153, 573 
352, 874 

Tons. 

7.000 

9.000 

8.000 

Tons. 
1,033,099 
855, 129 
960,374 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

1912 

1911 

1,018,979 

1,178,058 

2, 346, 027 
1,792,646 

4, 220, 135 
3,931,078 

1 Estimate  of  W illet  and  Gray. 

2 Less  shipments  (chiefly  refined  sugar)  from  the  United  States  to  these  possessions. 


FINAL  RETURNS  FOR  THE  HAWAIIAN  SUGAR  CAMPAIGN  OF  1912-13. 

The  production  of  sugar  in  Hawaii  during  the  year  ending  Septem- 
ber 30,  1913,  amounted  to  546,524  short  tons,  which  was  about  49,000 
less  than  the  year  before  and  28,000  less  than  in  1910-11. 

The  average  yield  of  cane  per  acre  was  the  lowest  in  the  past  three 
years,  amounting,  however,  to  39  tons;  and  the  total  cane  crushed  for 
sugar  equaled  4,476,000  short  tons.  The  area  harvested  in  1912-13 
was  greater  than  in  the  preceding  year,  but  less  than  in  1910-11. 
In  Hawaii  about  18  months  are  usually  required  for  a crop  of  cane 
to  mature. 

The  average  yields  per  acre  in  the  sugar-crop  reports  of  this  Bureau 
apply  only  to  areas  whose  crops  were  used  in  sugar  making  in  the 
campaign  to  which  averages  refer. 


Table  A. — Final  returns  for  the  Hawaiian  sugar  campaign  ending  Sept.  SO,  191S,  and 
comparison  with  two  preceding  campaigns. 


Facto- 

Average 
length 
of  cam- 
paign. 

Sugar 

made 

(chiefly 

raw). 

Cane  used  for  sugar. 

Average  extraction  of  sugar. 

Island,  and 
year  ending 
Sept.  30. 

ries 

in 

opera- 

tion. 

Area  har- 
vested. 

Average 

yield 

per 

acre. 

Produc- 

tion. 

Per  cent 
of  cane. 

Per 
short 
ton  of 
cane. 

Per 
acre  of 
cane. 

Hawaii: 

No. 

Days. 

Tons.^ 

Acres. 

Tons.i 

Pons.i 

Per  cent. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

1913 

24 

170 

197,212 

53,600 

32 

1,703,000 

11.58 

232 

7,364 

1912 

24 

204 

209,914 

52,900 

34 

1,799,000 

11.67 

233 

7,936 

1911 

26 

198,830 

53,400 

33 

1,744,000 

11.40 

228 

7,447 

Kauai: 

1913 

9 

198 

100,340 

20,800 

42 

841,000 

11.93 

239 

9,665 

1912 

9 

206 

96, 845 

18,900 

43 

807,000 

12. 00 

240 

10, 248 

1911 

Maui: 

9 

100,667 

21,200 

43 

919,000 

10.95 

219 

9,497 

1913 

7 

152 

124,820 

19, 700 

47 

929,000 

13.44 

269 

12,684 

1912 

7 

192 

148,740 

19,400 

55 

1,074,000 

13.85 

277 

15, 334 

1911 

Oahu: 

7 

139,894 

22, 500 

50 

1,133,000 

12.35 

247 

12,435 

1913 

10 

157 

124, 152 

20,500 

49 

1,003,000 

12.  38 

248 

12, 153 

1312 

10 

200 

139, 539 

21,800 

50 

1,094,000 

12. 75 

255 

12,802 

1911 

8 

135,087 

19,900 

52 

1,039,000 

13.00 

260 

13, 577 

Territory  of 
Hawaii: 

1913 

50 

169 

546, 524 

114,600 

39 

4,476,000 

12.  21 

244 

9,544 

1912 

50 

200 

595,038 

113,000 

42 

4,774,000 

12. 46 

249 

10, 532 

1911 

50 

574,478 

117,000 

41 

4,835,000 

11.88 

238 

9,820 

Short  tons  (2,000  pounds). 


THE  AGRICUJLTTr-ffiA'H.^CWTLOOK.  13 

ACREAGE  AND  YIELD  OF  COTTON  IN  1913. 

The  Bureau  of  Statistics  (Crop  Estimates),  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  has  made  a revision  of  its  preliminary  estimates 
of  cotton  acreage  last  year  (1913),  based  upon  results  of  a special 
investigation  and  the  report  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  of  the  quan- 
tity of  cotton  ginned  in  the  past  season.  The  revision  indicates  that 
the  area  planted  to  cotton  (in  cultivation  at  the  end  of  June,  1913) 
was  about  37,458,000  acres,  instead  of  35,622,000  as  reported  last  July. 
The  revised  estimated  will  be  used  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  as  a 
basis  in  making  its  cotton  acreage  estimates  this  year.  The  yield  of 
cotton  per  acre  in  1913  is  estimated  at  182  pounds,  as  compared 
with  190.9  pounds  in  1912,  207.7  pounds  in  1911,  170.7  pounds  in 
1910,  and  154.3  pounds  in  1909.  The  area  picked  in  1913  was  about 
37,089,000  acres. 

Details  by  States  for  1913  are  given  in  Table  5,  as  follows: 


Table  5. — Cotton  acreage  and  yield  per  acre,  1913,  by  States. 


state. 

Area 
planted 
(in  cultiva- 
tion end  of 
June;  1913), 
revLsed. 

Area 

picked, 

1913. 

Yield  per 
acre,  1913. 

Virginia 

Acres. 

48, 000 
1,589, 000 

Acres. 

47, 000 

Pounds. 

240 

North  Carolina 

1,576,000 

239 

South  Carolina 

2,  798,  000 

2, 790,  000 

235 

Georgia 

5,345,000 

5,318,  000 
188,  000 
3,  760, 000 

3.067.000 

1.244.000 

208 

Florida 

192, 000 
3,  798,  000 

3.117.000 

1.263.000 

150 

Alabama 

190 

Mississippi . 

204 

Louisiana 

170 

Texas 

12,686,000 

2,527,000 

12,597, 000 
2,502, 000 
865,000 

150 

Arkansas 

205 

Tennessee 

866,  000 
113,000 

210 

Missouri 

112,  000 
3,009,  000 
14, 000 

286 

Oklahoma 

3, 102, 000 
14,000 

132 

California 

500 

United  States 

37,  458,000 

37, 089, 000 

182.0 

BASIS  FOR  INTERPRETING  CROP  CONDITION  REPORTS. 

The  equivalent  of  100  per  cent  of  a normal  condition  in  terms  of 
prospective  yield  per  acre,  for  crops  in  the  United  States,  is  esti- 
mated as  follows,  the  figures  being  based  primarily  on  averages  of 
the  last  five  years,  with  modification  where  such  averages  are  un- 
duly influenced  by  abnormal  years.  -The  approximate  yield  per 
acre  indicated  by  the  condition  report  of  any  month  is  obtained  by 
multiplying  the  equivalent  of  100,  as  given  below,  by  the  condition 
percentage.  For  example,  if  the  condition  of  corn  on  October  1 be 
reported  75  per  cent  of  normal,  the  indicated  yield  per  acre  would  be 


14 


' ' FAKM^R^'^’CJLL^TIN  598. 


35X0.75  = 26.25  bushels.  A brief  statement  relating  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  crop  condition  figures  was  published  in  tlie  Crop  Re- 
porter for  July,  1911. 

Table  6. — Estimated  equivalent  in  yield  per  acre  of  100  condition. 


Estimated  equivalent  in  prospective  yield  of  a condition  oT 
100  (normal)  on — 


May  1. 

June  ] . 

July  1. 

Aug.  1. 

Sept.  1. 

Oct.  1. 

Com .bushels. . 

31.8 

19.7 

16.6 

18.6 

37.1 

30.2 
18.5 

33.5 

34.7 

3."  0 

Winter  wheat do 

ie.6 

19.5 

15.3 
18.0 

35.4 

28.6 

18.4 

Spring  wheat dc 

17.4 

18.0 

All  wheat do 

Oats do 

37.9 
31. 3 

38.4 

31.9 

Barley do 

Rye do 

18.3 

Buckwheat do 

23.8 
124 
1,006 
10.6 
38.5 
1.65  , 
234 

24.7 
129 

1,021 

11.0 

38.8 

25.6 

132 

1,004 

11.3 

39.2 

Potatoes do.  . 

115 

965 

10.1 

38.5 

1.70 

232 

Tobacco pounds. . 

Flax bushels. . 

Rice do 

Hay tons. . 

1.62 

232 

Cotton pounds. . 

260 

280 

FLORIDA  AND  CALIFORNIA  CROP  REPORT. 

Table  7. — Crop  conditions  in  Florida  and  California. 


Crop, 

Florida. 

1 

I 

California. 

Condition  May  1 — 

Condi- 
tion 
Apr.  1, 
1914. 

Condition  May  1— 

Condi- 
tion 
Apr.  1, 
1914. 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1914 

1913 

1912 

Pineapples 

80 

95 

89 

80 

Oranges 

95 

90 

96 

102 

95 

70 

92 

98 

Lemons 

90 

92 

56 

90 

94 

T.imes  

95 

90 

90 

100 

Grapefruit 

96 

88 

98 

101 

Peaches 

80 

70 

85 

85 

Pears 

55 

48 

60 

82 

Strawberries  i 

86 

90 

80 

Watermelons 

85 

84 

86 

Cantaloupes 

80 

81 

84 

Apricots ... 

80 

61 

78 

Almonds 

89 

48 

92 

Cauliflower  i 

96 

90 

90 

Velvet  beans 

86 

Tomatoes ..  

77  ; 

81 

87 

80 

Cabbages  i . 

90 

87 

80 

Potatoes - . . 

85 

87 

84 

92 

Cowpeas . . 

85 

«3 

83 

Production  compared  witli  a full  crop. 


THE  AGRICHLTH'RAJUi  WTLOOK 


15 


Table  8. — Winter  wheat  and  rye;  acreage.,  condition,  forecast,  and  prices  on  dates  indicated . 


Winter  wheat. 


llye. 


State. 

Acreage. 

Condition 
May  1. 

Forecast  1914  from 

May  1 condition. 

Final  estimate  191.3, 

(000  omitted). 

Price 
May  1. 

Condition 
May  1. 

Condition  Apr.  1 

Price 
May  1. 

Per  cent  aban- 
doned. 

Acres  remain- 
ing to  be 
harvested. 

1914 

1913 

10-year  aver- 
age. 

1914 

1913 

1914 

10-year  aver- 

age. 

1914 

1913 

P.  c. 

P.  c. 

P.  c. 

Bush. 

Bush. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

P.c. 

P.  c. 

P.  c. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

95 

91 

98 

95 

91 

96 

94 

63 

94 

94 

94 

100 

8;5 

New  York 

1.0 

360,000 

95 

92 

87 

7,500 

6,800 

99 

101 

92 

88 

94 

75 

73 

New  Jersey 

4.5 

79,000 

93 

95 

90 

1,400 

1,408 

101 

90 

93 

92 

91 

j 76 

75 

Pennsylvania . . 

2.0 

1,312,000 

94 

94 

90 

23, 400 

21,802 

90 

100 

94 

90 

94 

i 75 

77 

Delaw'are 

2.0 

114,000 

94 

95 

91 

1,900 

1,638 

96 

100 

90 

91 

90 

1 76 

69 

Maryland 

1.5 

612,000 

94 

95 

91 

9,900 

8,113 

94 

103 

92 

91 

91 

70 

72 

Virginia 

1.9 

779,000 

95 

95 

91 

10.000 

10,608 

101 

105 

94 

91 

95 

83 

81 

West  Vuginia. . 

2.0 

236,000 

95 

92 

88 

3,200 

3,055 

100 

105 

93 

90 

93 

82 

89 

North  Carolina. 

2.6 

611,000 

92 

93 

90 

6,  .500 

7,078 

112 

113 

92 

91 

92 

99 

96 

South  Carolina. 

3.0 

80,000 

88 

84 

8.5 

900 

972 

125 

122 

89 

87 

89 

172 

181 

Georgia 

3.0 

140,000 

90 

89 

87 

1,600 

1,708 

122 

120 

90 

89 

92 

122 

120 

Ohio 

1.3 

2,090,000 

96 

91 

80 

38,900 

35,100 

92 

102 

95 

85 

96 

71 

69 

Indiana 

1.3 

2,485,000 

98 

91 

81 

45, 500 

39, 775 

91 

97 

95 

88 

96 

62 

62 

Illinois 

2.0 

2,576,000 

97 

94 

83 

47, 500 

41,888 

86 

93 

96 

90 

97 

63 

58 

Michigan 

2.3 

879,000 

92 

83 

80 

15. 800 

12, 776 

90 

100 

93 

86 

91 

62 

56 

W isconsin 

5.0 

85,000 

89 

89 

88 

1,600 

1,749 

84 

82  , 

92 

91 

87 

55 

54 

Minnesota 

8.0 

41,000 

89 

810 

83 

80 

93 

89 

88 

49 

51 

Iowa 

2.0 

479,000 

95 

93 

89 

11,100 

10,530 

80 

80 

96 

93 

93 

61 

04 

Missouri 

1.4 

2,549,000 

99 

95 

86 

44,200 

39, 586 

86 

95 

95 

90 

96 

70 

77 

North  Dakota.. 

92 

87 

87 

42 

47 

South  Dakota. . 

14.0 

69,000 

88 

900 

76 

76 

93 

91 

88 

53 

54 

Nebraska 

4.0 

3,123,000 

94 

97 

87 

63, 100 

58, 125 

75 

74 

92 

90 

92 

56 

53 

Klansas 

4.5 

7,950,000 

96 

91 

82 

1.32,000 

86,515 

80 

79 

95 

87 

95 

70 

65 

Kentucky 

2.3 

745,000 

98 

91 

87 

10,200 

9,860 

96 

102 

95 

88 

94 

82 

87 

Tennessee 

2.0 

709,000 

97 

92 

88 

8,600 

8,400 

102 

107 

93 

88 

93 

94 

100 

Alabama 

8.0 

31,000 

92 

90 

88 

400 

374 

123 

112 

90 

87 

91 

129 

101 

Mississippi 

15.0 

1,000 

90 

90 

86 

14 

92 

Texas 

5.0 

1,082,000 

90 

78 

79 

15,600 

13, 050 

93 

90 

88 

78 

81 

99 

102 

Oklahoma 

3.0 

2,465,000 

96 

89 

82 

35,500 

17,500 

83 

78 

97 

84 

97 

80 

70 

Arkansas 

2.5 

105,000 

97 

95 

87 

1,.300 

1,313 

89 

92 

96 

87 

93 

89 

to 

Montana 

5.0 

481,000 

~ 96 

92 

94 

12,900 

12,288 

73 

68 

97 

96 

94 

75 

62 

Wyoming 

4.0 

41,000 

90 

97 

94 

1,100 

1,000 

80 

85 

97 

96 

97 

60 

55 

Colorado 

8.0 

194,000 

95 

94 

90 

4,800 

4,220 

78 

73 

94 

91 

92 

67 

54 

New  Mexico 

7.0 

42,000 

93 

85 

900 

651 

92 

90 

Arizona 

5.0 

31,000 

94 

90 

900 

928 

112 

115 

1 

Utah 

3.0 

223,000 

99 

90 

93 

5,500 

4,600 

77 

77 

97 

96 

96 

55 

60 

Nevada 

4.5 

18,000 

97 

90 

98 

400 

368 

91 

100 

Idaho 

2.0 

339,000 

99 

95 

96 

10,100 

8,494 

73 

73 

98 

96 

97 

75 

73 

Washington 

4.5 

1,201,000 

98 

95 

94 

33,000 

32,400 

80 

79 

98 

94 

100 

55 

Oregon 

2.0 

622,000 

102 

92 

96 

15,200 

12,305 

82 

77 

100 

96 

98 

80 

75 

California 

5.0 

408,000 

95 

62 

80 

7,800 

4,200 

93 

94 

100 

88 

100 

92 

90 

United  States 

3.1 

35,387,000 

95.9 

91.9 

85.5 

630,000 

52.3,561 

83.9 

80.9 

93.4 

89.4 

91.3 

j62.9 

62.4 

16 


FAKMEKS  BULLETIN  598, 


Table  9. — Hay — Stock  and  price  of  old  crop,  condition  and  forecast  of  meadows,  May  1; 
amount  fed  on  farms  where  produced,  1914,  with  cojnparisons. 


Hay. 


State, 

Quantity  on  farms  May  1 
(000  omitted). 

] 

Price 
May  1 — 

Per  cent  fed 
to  stock 
owned  on 
farms  pro- 
ducing it. 

Meadows: 
Condition 
May  1, 

Yield  i)cr  acre. 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

10- 

year 

aver- 

age. 

1914 
( indi- 
ca- 
ted). 

1913 

(fi- 

nal). 

10- 

year 

aver- 

age. 

• 

P.ct.i 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Dolls. 

Dolls. 

P.ct. 

P.ct. 

P.ct. 

P.ct. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Maine 

11 

131 

486 

148 

14.00 

13.90 

78 

73 

93 

94 

1.12 

1.00 

1.12 

New  Hampshire 

10 

50 

88 

47 

17.  50 

16.  00 

88 

85 

91 

91 

1.11 

1.00 

1.11 

Vermont 

10 

128 

182 

92 

14.40 

13.50 

89 

85 

95 

94 

1..33 

1.28 

1.32 

Massachusetts 

11 

63 

77 

41 

20.  70 

20.00 

86 

80 

89 

91 

1.20 

1.21 

1.23 

Rhode  Island 

18 

12 

8 

5 

21.00 

21.40 

85 

85 

94 

90 

1.18 

1.17 

1.17 

Connecticut 

12 

52 

57 

25 

20.00 

20.70 

82 

84 

92 

91 

1.20 

1.14 

1.17 

New  York 

12 

643 

826 

337 

15.00 

13.  20 

73 

73 

88 

88 

1.20 

1.14 

1.22 

New  Jersey 

17 

80 

83 

41 

19.00 

18.00 

70 

70 

90 

90 

1.33 

1.30 

1.34 

Pennsylvania 

16 

663 

817 

242 

15.00 

13.40 

71 

69 

89 

88 

1.34 

1.32 

1.35 

Delaware 

14 

13 

16 

4 

16.  70 

14.00 

75 

75 

86 

88 

1.33 

1.30 

1.37 

Maryland 

12 

59 

92 

20 

16.00 

11.80 

74 

71 

87 

86 

1.30 

1.26 

1.30 

Virginia 

12 

114 

107 

36 

15. 50 

14.50 

81 

80 

88 

87 

1.23 

1.27 

1.22 

West  Virginia 

10 

92 

144 

18 

16.  30 

14.20 

85 

81 

92 

89 

1.29 

1.25 

1.30 

North  Carolina 

14 

59 

53 

43 

18.  30 

16.  70 

87 

84 

87 

88 

1.30 

1.31 

1.44 

South  Carolina 

18 

44 

38 

46 

18.60 

20.00 

83 

83 

8.5 

86 

1.19 

1.16 

1.30 

Georgia 

22 

77 

54 

52 

18. 50 

18.  70 

85 

85 

86 

88 

1.38 

1.40 

1.50 

Florida 

17 

11 

7 

7 

17.00 

18. 50 

85 

78 

84 

85 

1.30 

1.35 

1.36 

Ohio 

12 

462 

684 

196 

12.80 

10.  70 

67 

63 

92 

86 

1.44 

1.30 

1.36 

Indiana 

13 

234 

465 

146 

13.  40 

10.  40 

71 

66 

91 

87 

1.34 

1.00 

1.28 

Illinois 1 

12 

294 

523 

191 

14.00 

11.60 

75 

68 

88 

88 

1.25 

.98 

1.25 

Michigan 

12 

302 

541 

222 

12.  40 

9.60 

70 

67 

85 

84 

1.28 

1.05 

1.28 

W isconsin 

15 

577 

504 

243 

10. 50 

10. 30 

77 

81 

91 

87 

1.55 

1.62 

1.48 

Minnesota 

13 

324 

407 

142 

6.70 

6.50 

72 

75 

89 

85 

1.56 

1.50 

1.54 

Iowa 

13 

577 

891 

200 

10.00 

8.90 

80 

80 

91 

88 

1.46 

1.48 

1.41 

Missouri 

8 

144 

704 

123 

14.50 

9.70 

80 

73 

88 

88 

1.14 

.60 

1.14 

North  Dakota 

13 

50 

82 

51 

6. 50 

5.70 

78 

75 

86 

82 

1.29 

1.14 

1.27 

South  Dakota 

13 

72 

114 

11 

6.60 

5.  70 

85 

82 

90 

84 

1.35 

1.20 

1.29 

Nebraska 

10 

168 

202 

49 

8.50 

7.40 

80 

80 

93 

88 

1.40 

1.34 

1.40 

Kansas 

6 

81 

317 

66 

12. 30 

7. 50 

80 

77 

85 

86 

1.28 

.90 

1.30 

Kentucky 

13 

88 

180 

80 

17.10 

14.00 

77 

71 

93 

89 

1.30 

.87 

1.25 

Tennessee 

15 

163 

219 

111 

18.00 

14.80 

76 

74 

93 

89 

1.40 

1.21 

1.42 

Alabama 

17 

49 

47 

44 

16.  20 

14.60 

81 

81 

88 

86 

1.50 

1.36 

1.59 

Mississippi 

17 

50 

56 

48 

13.  70 

11.30 

85 

80 

89 

87 

1.56 

1.33 

1.57 

Louisiana 

14 

34 

33 

23 

12.  60 

12.00 

70 

75 

90 

89 

1.71 

1.50 

1.74 

Texas 

16 

74 

70 

30 

12.00 

11.10 

74 

75 

94 

85 

1.41 

1.16 

1.41 

Oklahoma 

7 

27 

58 

13 

11.50 

7.  50 

70 

73 

86 

87 

1.08 

.85 

1.18 

Arkansas 

13 

50 

67 

41 

14.80 

12.  80 

75 

75 

91 

89 

1.36 

1.20 

1.40 

Montana 

18 

214 

170 

109 

7.  90 

8.90 

60 

68 

93 

92 

1.86 

1.80 

1.80 

Wyoming 

12 

109 

146 

34 

8.00 

6.80 

70 

70 

98 

95 

2.25 

1.90 

2.18 

Colorado 

12 

219 

286 

no 

9. 50 

8. 30 

66 

63 

96 

93 

2. 30 

2.05 

2.29 

New  Mexico 

9 

36 

57 

51 

14.00 

11.70 

58 

50 

94 

88 

2. 54 

2. 08 

2.35 

Arizona 

10 

54 

27 

8 

8.  50 

11.00 

67 

67 

100 

92 

3.50 

4.00 

3.27 

Utah 

8 

73 

102 

61 

9.  20 

9.00 

74 

72 

98 

95 

2. 94 

2. 33 

2.89 

Nevada 

13 

84 

123 

68 

9.60 

10.00 

65 

60 

97 

96 

2. 91 

2.75 

2.  57 

Idaho 

9 

184 

194 

208 

7. 90 

7.00 

59 

55 

98 

95 

3.04 

2.  90 

2.94 

Washington 

10 

179 

171 

231 

11.90 

12.  00 

62 

66 

99 

94 

2. 38 

2. 30 

2.  27 

Oregon 

10 

173 

209 

192 

9.60 

8.  30 

68 

67 

99 

96 

2.  23 

2.10 

2.11 

California 

11 

396 

344 

438 

10.50 

15.90 

48 

54 

100 

86 

2.05 

1.50 

1.77 

United  States 

12.2 

7,832 

10, 828 

4,744 

12. 32 

11.13 

72.2 

71.2 

90.9 

88.1 

1.46 

1.31 

1.40 

Per  cent  of  1913  crop. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK 


17 


Table  10. — Condition  of  pastures^  arid  percentage  of  plowing  and  planting  done  hij  Mag  1, 
1914,  and  condition  of  honeybees  1914,  with  comparisons. 


State. 

Spring  pasture, 
condition 
May  1. 

Spring  plowing, 
percentage 
done  by  May  1. 

Spring  plant- 
ing, percentage 
done  by  May  1. 

Honeybees. 

Number 
of  colonies 
compared 
with— 

Condition 
of  bees 
compared 
with — 

Condition 
of  nectar 
plants 
compared 
with — 

1914 

1913 

10- 

year 

aver- 

age. 

1914 

1913 

10- 

year 

aver- 

age. 

1914 

1913 

8- 

year 

aver- 

age. 

Last 

year. 

Usu- 

al. 

Last 

year. 

Nor- 

mal. 

Last 

year. 

Nor- 

mal 

P.c. 

P.c. 

P.c. 

P.c. 

P.c. 

P.  c. 

P.c. 

P.c. 

P.c. 

Maine 

90 

90 

93 

55 

28 

22 

3 

6 

4 

99 

98 

88 

94 

85 

93 

New  Hampshire 

87 

96 

90 

32 

35 

26 

4 

12 

8 

96 

94 

100 

91 

98 

95 

Vermont 

92 

91 

92 

50 

53 

38 

4 

16 

14 

98 

98 

100 

95 

98 

98 

Massachusetts 

87 

93 

88 

30 

43 

32 

12 

21 

16 

96 

95 

93 

90 

90 

91 

86 

93 

87 

40 

52 

47 

28 

42 

32 

99 

99 

96 

93 

Connecticut 

84 

92 

89 

29 

39 

37 

15 

24 

20 

92 

85 

80 

85 

100 

90 

New  Y ork 

82 

89 

85 

41 

58 

45 

9 

32 

24 

103 

102 

100 

95 

93 

95 

New  Jersey 

86 

93 

88 

52 

68 

64 

39 

55 

45 

103 

100 

105 

98 

no 

98 

Pennsylvania 

85 

89 

84 

51 

73 

71 

25 

47 

40 

98 

95 

100 

94 

90 

93 

83 

91 

85 

61 

67 

74 

30 

35 

36 

101 

100 

98 

95 

Maryland 

85 

90 

85 

59 

68 

76 

27 

34 

34 

100 

96 

100 

95 

90 

93 

Virginia 

84 

88 

85 

75 

86 

81 

45 

54 

50 

100 

98 

85 

93 

100 

90 

West  Virginia 

91 

85 

87 

60 

78 

72 

36 

52 

40 

101 

99 

95 

95 

100 

94 

84 

84 

85 

76 

81 

84 

58 

67 

67 

103 

101 

92 

91 

- 

82 

83 

84 

82 

82 

85 

75 

73 

75 

100 

100 

91 

91 

Georgia 

86 

85 

88 

84 

84 

83 

74 

75 

74 

98 

95 

95 

94 

100 

93 

Florida 

84 

87 

86 

85 

90 

77 

80 

85 

62 

103 

101 

105 

97 

no 

95 

Ohio 

90 

87 

85 

55 

62 

66 

32 

38 

34 

108 

105 

98 

100 

90 

100 

Indiana 

90 

89 

85 

55 

52 

56 

37 

38 

35 

115 

no 

90 

96 

90 

95 

Illinois 

87 

87 

87 

60 

45 

54 

43 

38 

37 

100 

97 

93 

98 

75 

85 

Michigan 

82 

82 

78 

49 

43 

44 

33 

31 

31 

103 

101 

101 

98 

93 

94 

Wisconsin 

91 

81 

84 

63 

65 

61 

43 

54 

56 

105 

100 

133 

no 

89 

93 

Minnesota 

87 

81 

82 

68 

68 

56 

60 

69 

66 

105 

100 

108 

98 

95 

95 

Iowa 

90 

86 

85 

70 

58 

63 

56 

52 

50 

115 

105 

112 

100 

93 

95 

Missouri 

86 

87 

86 

70 

56 

61 

50 

46 

44 

93 

90 

105 

85 

85 

85 

North  Dakota 

80 

86 

81 

54 

46 

43 

45 

48 

50 

105 

no 

102 

100 

South  Dakota 

88 

84 

82 

64 

60 

61 

62 

65 

70 

115 

105 

no 

105 

93 

98 

N ebraska 

89 

91 

84 

64 

53 

61 

52 

45 

48 

97 

95 

no 

95 

100 

95 

Kansas 

80 

89 

83 

69 

62 

68 

55 

50 

55 

90 

85 

85 

86 

90 

85 

Kentucky 

89 

88 

87 

69 

72 

70 

•40 

47 

40 

110 

115 

96 

95 

85 

93 

Tennessee 

91 

89 

88 

75 

75 

74 

54 

62 

54 

115 

120 

105 

95 

93 

92 

Alabama 

87 

84 

88 

85 

81 

81 

74 

73 

69 

105 

105 

102 

97 

95 

95 

Mississippi 

89 

86 

88 

82 

83 

78 

72 

73 

68 

95 

94 

92 

93 

100 

95 



91 

87 

90 

85 

89 

86 

73 

79 

76 

96 

93 

91 

90 

Texas 

94 

79 

85 

91 

92 

90 

75 

79 

78 

112 

115 

120 

115 

150 

115 

Oklahoma 

85 

85 

86 

87 

85 

84 

73 

71 

70 

110 

107 

100 

98 

99 

96 

Arkansas 

90 

87 

89 

78 

80 

76 

64 

71 

65 

100 

99 

92 

90 

Montana  

91 

88 

89 

69 

55 

67 

59 

42 

51 

110 

120 

105 

100 

Wvominc 

98 

98 

91 

61 

50 

64 

45 

35 

52 

110 

106 

108 

100 

Colorado 

94 

92 

89 

64 

63 

67 

56 

57 

59 

120 

115 

no 

no 

107 

107 

New  Mexico 

90 

85 

84 

76 

63 

72 

61 

44 

57 

115 

no 

108 

105 

119 

105 

Arizona 

92 

84 

89 

90 

90 

81 

84 

80 

71 

no 

115 

115 

105 

106 

105 

TTt.a.h  

98 

87 

93 

82 

76 

75 

78 

68 

72 

105 

no 

105 

102 

N evada  

97 

90 

95 

85 

88 

85 

70 

75 

74 

105 

no 

100 

100 

Idaho 

97 

90 

94 

80 

56 

73 

70 

47 

62 

130 

150 

126 

115 

123 

no 

Washington 

99 

91 

92 

87 

77 

77 

81 

70 

80 

105 

108 

115 

102 

100 

Oregon 

100 

95 

95 

87 

82 

82 

76 

70 

79 

108 

no 

106 

105 

98 

100 

California 

101 

'62 

86 

91 

91 

83 

85 

87 

83 

93 

85 

125 

107 

175 

120 

, United  States  .. 

88.3 

87.1 

85.6 

70.9 

67.2 

66.6 

56.4 

57.0 

54.6 

|l03.  7 

101.  S 

1 104. 4j97.  8 

103.0 

99. 1 

18 


TARMEES^  BULLETIN  598. 


Table  11, — Prices  to  producers  of  agricultural  products  May  1,  1914  and  1913. 


[Cotton  in  cents  per  pound;  other  products,  cents  per  bushel.] 


State. 

Corn. 

Oats. 

Barley. 

Buck- 

wheat. 

Potatoes. 

Flax 

seed. 

Cotton, 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914' 

1 

! 1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1 

1 

1914 

j 1 

1 

1913 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

as. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

79 

68 

58 

50 

80 

80 

61 

70 

64 

40 

80 

70 

55 

50 

90 

75 

' 75 

85 

73 

Vermont. 

77 

68 

54 

50 

87 

85 

86. 

80 

77 

67 

78 

66 

50 

49 

86 

77 

96 

75 

109 

100 

32 

32 

100 

93 

76 

80 

63 

50 

44 

100 

100 

89 

77 

New  York 

80 

66 

49 

44 

73 

72 

83 

71 

82 

59 

New  Jersey 

80 

66 

50 

42 

81 

72 

82 

69 

Pennsylvania 

75 

65 

47 

45 

65 

60 

74 

70 

85 

58 

Delaware 

72 

60 

60 

40 

70 

99 

73 

Maryland 

73 

61 

51 

46 

63 

60 

76 

77 

53 

87 

75 

53 

52 

69 

67 

87 

85 

88 

74 

12.5 

11.9 

87 

71 

56 

51 

78 

76 

99 

69 

96 

84 

63 

59 

80 

92 

97 

83 

12.6 

11.2 

100 

92 

66 

61 

131 

145 

12.7 

11.  7 

Georgia 

95 

94 

63 

119 

104 

12.9 

11.7 

Florida 

87 

93 

69 

70 

139 

129 

15.0 

14.0 

Ohio 

68 

53 

40 

34 

61 

60 

76 

65 

83 

52 

Indiana 

64 

51 

38 

33 

53 

61 

85 

81 

84 

48 

Illinois 

63 

51 

37 

31 

51 

45 

100 

85 

89 

60 

Michigan 

6S 

o4 

41 

34 

57 

62 

67 

67 

57 

32 

W iscoflsin  

61 

52 

37 

33 

53 

50 

72 

64 

52 

28 

129 

1^ 

Minnesota  

54 

45 

32 

28 

44 

42 

70 

60 

51 

26 

138 

116 

Iowa 

59 

45 

34 

30 

49 

51 

73 

85 

93 

49 

120 

130 

Missouri 

76 

55 

45 

39 

110 

101 

72 

120 

120 

11.  5 

9.5 

North  Dakota 

56 

49 

30 

23 

37 

36 

60 

28 

136 

112 

South  Dakota 

57 

43 

34 

29 

45 

42 

77 

36 

125 

117 

Nebraska.  . . . 

65 

47 

37 

33 

51 

41 

90 

53 

120 

117 

Kan.sas  ^ 

75 

52 

45 

39 

55 

40 

101 

72 

124 

125 

Kentucky 

82 

66 

54 

48 

62 

70 

104 

65 

Tennessee. 

84 

69 

55 

51 

82 

85 

75 

73 

115 

83 

12.3 

11.9 

Alabama 

95 

84 

66 

59 

118 

115 

12.7 

11.6 

Mississippi . 

83 

79 

59 

62 

112 

105 

12.  5 

11.9 

Louisiana 

81 

79 

59 

54 

100 

110 

11.8 

11.8 

Texa.s 

89 

69 

50 

43 

75 

50 

119 

106 

11.6 

11.5 

Oklahoma..  ..  

77 

52 

48 

43 

45 

107 

89 

10.  9 

11.2 

A rka.nsas 

84 

73 

53 

52 

111 

97 

11.3 

11.7 

Slontana 

74 

39 

41 

65 

49 

75 

44 

113 

W yoming 

58 

50 

38 

70 

70 

78 

70 

Colorado 

68 

50 

49 

39 

59 

51 

57 

30 

New  Mexico 

100 

70 

60 

40 

44 

110 

70 

Arizona..  

115 

100 

65 

70 

67 

75 

115 

111 

Utah 

70 

69 

40 

44 

57 

52 

60 

43 

Nevada, 

112 

52 

58 

71 

86 

78 

35 

Idaho 

76 

78 

35 

34 

47 

50 

48 

30 

M'^ashington 

76 

40 

41 

55 

45 



42 

32 

Oregon 

69 

75 

38 

42 

55 

56 

37  ! 

20 

Ca.lifornia, , 

89 

80 

52 

52 

56  i 

63 

65  ! 

42 

i 

United  States 

72.1 

56.8 

39.5 

34.2 

49.3 

48.3 

77.3  j 

71.4 

71.4  ;48.2 

1 

134.7 

114.312.2  ! 

11.6 

THE  AGKICULTURAL  OUTLOOK, 


19- 


Table  12. — Prices  to  producers  of  agricultural  products  on  dates  indicated. 

[Butter,  chickens,  and  wool,  in  centsper  pound;  eggs,  cents  per  dozen;  livestock,  dollars  per  100  pounds.] 


May  1. 


Apr.  15. 


State. 

Butter. 

Eggs. 

Chickens. 

Hogs. 

Beef 

cattle. 

Veal 

calves. 

Sheep. 

Wool. 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

I 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

1913 

Maine 

as. 

30 

as. 

31 

as. 

22 

as. 

20 

as. 

15.0 

as. 

14.5 

$7.90 

$8.00 

$7.00 

$7.60 

$7. 80  $8.  401 

$4.50 

$4.20 

as. 

I9I 

as. 

21 

New^  Hampshire  . 

33 

32 

23 

20 

15.9 

15.2 

9.20 

8.  50 

7.60 

6.90 

8. 50 

8. 10 

5.90 

5.70 

17! 

21 

Vermont 

29 

35 

20 

19 

13.8 

13.4 

7.90 

7.90 

5.50 

5.00 

7.  40 

7. 00 

3.90 

4. 10 

18 

19 

Massachusetts 

33 

36 

26 

26 

17.6 

17.5 

8.70 

9. 10 

6. 90 

6.00 

9.  40 

9.00 

25 

Rhode  Island 

32 

38 

21 

21 

17.7 

18.0 

9.60 

8.30 

8.  50 

6.80 

10.00 

8.30 

’5.’ 66 

'5.56 

22 

Connecticut 

30 

38 

25 

22 

17.2 

17.0 

9.60 

8.  50 

6.60 

8.00 

10.00 

9.00 

6.00 

7.  40 

20 

18 

New  York 

28 

33 

20 

19 

16.0 

15.0 

8.00 

8.20 

5.  40 

5.60 

8.60 

8.60 

4.  30 

4.80 

19 

20 

New  Jersey 

32 

36 

21 

21 

17.1 

17.4 

9.  50 

8.80 

7. 50 

6.90 

9.  70 

9.50 

4.60 

6.00 

20 

18 

Pennsylvania 

28 

33 

18 

18 

14.8 

14.0 

8.  70 

8.  50 

7.  40 

7.20 

8.80 

8.60 

5.80 

5.  40 

20 

23 

Delaware 

30 

27 

18 

18 

14.5 

16.0 

8.60 

8.80 

6.40 

6. 10 

9.70 

10.00 

4.80 

5.40 

21 

20 

Maryland 

28 

28 

17 

16 

16.1 

16.0 

8. 10 

8.  50 

7.  20 

6.50 

8.90 

9.50 

5.50 

4.80 

19 

22 

Virginia 

26 

25 

16 

16 

15.0 

14.4 

7.90 

7.80 

6.  30 

6.  00 

8.  20 

7.90 

4.  70 

4.60 

20 

23 

Wast  Virginia 

27 

26 

18 

17 

13.4 

12.2 

8.00 

8.  00 

6.60 

6.  00 

8.  00 

7.  90 

4.70 

4.80 

20 

23 

North  Carolina. . . 

25 

24 

16 

15 

12.5 

11.0 

8.00 

7.  70 

5.00 

4.40 

6.00 

5.40 

4.  20 

4.90 

19 

21 

South  Carolina. . . 

26 

26 

20 

19 

15.0 

12.7 

7.80 

7.60 

4.70 

4.30 

5.50 

5.  40 

5. 10 

5. 10 

15 

14 

Georgia 

26 

25 

18 

17 

13.7 

12.7 

7.80 

7.10 

4. 50 

4.10 

5.40 

5.00 

4.  .50 

4.30 

19 

21 

Florida 

33 

35 

22 

22 

16.0 

15.  6 

6. 10 

5.60 

4.70 

4.20 

5.90 

5.20 

6.00 

6. 10 

21 

Ohio 

24 

26 

17 

16 

13.2 

12.5 

8.30 

8.  70 

7. 10 

7.00 

8.50 

8.  60 

4.  70 

5.  20 

'"26 

21 

Indiana 

22 

24 

16 

16 

12.5 

11.  7 

8.  40 

8.  70 

7.00 

6.  70 

7.80 

7.70 

4.50 

4.60 

20 

21 

Illinois 

24 

26 

16 

16 

12.  2 

11.7 

8. 10 

8.  50 

7.00 

6.80 

8.20 

7.60 

4.  70 

5. 10 

17 

20 

Michigan 

25 

28 

18 

17 

12.8 

12.1 

8. 10 

8.50 

6.  40 

6.  40 

8.20 

8.20 

4.90 

5.40 

20 

18 

Wisconsin 

25 

30 

17 

17 

12.5 

11.7 

8.00 

8.  30 

5.  70 

6.  00 

7.80 

7. 50 

4.  70 

5.20 

18 

20 

Minnesota 

24 

29 

16 

16 

11.0 

10.2 

7.80 

8. 10 

6.00 

5.90 

7.50 

7.  40 

4.70 

5.00 

16 

18 

Iowa 

24 

28 

16 

15 

10.7 

10.4 

8. 10 

8.50 

7.40 

7.40 

8.20 

7.30 

5.00 

5.30 

17 

19 

Missouri 

21 

23 

16 

15 

12.2 

11.5 

7.80 

8. 10 

6.  90 

6.  90 

7.60 

7. 30 

4.  70 

5.00 

18 

19 

North  Dakota 

20 

23 

14 

15 

10.2 

10.0 

7. 20 

7.  40 

5.70 

5.  30 

7.50 

6.60 

4.70 

4.80 

15 

17 

South  Dakota 

21 

25 

15 

15 

9.3 

9.0 

7.60 

8.  00 

6.  60 

6.  40 

7.60 

7. 10 

5.00 

5.20 

16 

17 

Nebraska 

20 

23 

15 

14 

10.6 

10.  1 

7.  90 

8.20 

7.00 

6.90 

8.  40 

7.90 

5.70 

5.90 

15 

18 

Kansas 

20 

24 

15 

14 

10.7 

10.4 

7.90 

8.  30 

7. 10 

7. 10 

8. 10 

7.  70 

5. 30 

6.20 

15 

Kentucky 

21 

22 

15 

14 

12.0 

11.4 

7.80 

7.80 

6.  40 

6.00 

7. 50 

6.80 

4.00 

4.00 

"’26 

21 

Tennessee 

19 

20 

15 

14 

12.0 

11.6 

7.30 

7. 10 

5.  70 

5. 10 

6.  50 

6.00 

3.80 

3.80 

18 

19 

Alabama 

21 

22 

16 

15 

12.5 

11.8 

7.20 

7.00 

4.30 

3.  50 

5. 10 

4.  70 

3.80 

4.00 

15 

10 

Mississippi 

23 

23 

15 

16 

12.5 

11.8 

6.  40 

6.20 

4.  40 

3.80 

5.50 

4.80 

4.00 

3.90 

15 

17 

Louisiana 

26 

27 

17 

16 

12.9 

12.8 

6.50 

5.40 

5. 10 

4. 10 

6.  30 

4.00 

5.90 

4.00 

14 

15 

Texas 

21 

22 

14 

13 

10.0 

9.0 

7. 30 

7. 30 

5.  70 

5.20 

6. 30 

6. 30 

4.90 

4.  40 

14 

14 

Oklahoma 

20 

22 

14 

13 

10.4 

10.0 

7.60 

8.00 

6. 10 

5.90 

7.  50 

6.90 

5. 10 

5.20 

15 

19 

Arkansas 

23 

23 

15 

14 

10.8 

10.0 

6.  40 

6.20 

4.90 

4.20 

6.  40 

5.  70 

3.80 

3.80 

16 

17 

Montana 

33 

32 

18 

22 

13.0 

13.9 

7.60 

7.90 

6.  30 

6.  70 

8.80 

8.00 

5.  00 

6.00 

17 

18 

Wyoming 

28 

31 

19 

20 

11.7 

12.3 

7.  70 

7.  40 

6.90 

6.50 

10.  00 

9.00 

5.  80 

5.80 

16 

17 

Colorado 

27 

27 

19 

18 

12.8 

13.0 

7.70 

7.90 

6.  90 

6.  50 

8.  70 

8.80 

5.  50 

6.00 

16 

16 

New  Mexico 

33 

36 

23 

19 

13.  8 

12.2 

7.90 

8. 10 

6.  50 

5.90 

7.  60 

7.00 

5.50 

3.90 

14 

14 

Arizona 

34 

40 

23 

24 

17.0 

15.  4 

7.  70 

7.  50 

6.  20 

6.  00 

7.20 
8.  40 

1 7.50 

4.  20 

4.  20 

14 

14 

Utah 

30 

32 

17 

19 

13.  1 

13.5 

7. 10 

7.  30 

6. 10 

6. 00 

10.00 

5.20 

5.60 

15 

14 

Nevada 

34 

39 

29 

27 

22.0 

22.5 

8.90 

8.90 

6.80 

8.00 

8. 10 

10.00 

5.00 

5.  50 

15 

14 

Idaho 

27 

32 

17 

19 

10. 1 

11.7 

7. 50 

7.50 

6.  50 

6.  10 

7.  50 

8. 30 

4.50 

5.  40 

17 

18 

Washington 

28 

31 

19 

19 

14.6 

14.2 

7.80 

8. 10 

6.80 

6.  70 

7.  90 

8.60 

5.  40 

5.80 

16 

16 

Oregon 

26 

33 

18 

20 

13.9 

12.7 

7. 50 

7.  70 

6.  70 

6.80 

7.  .50 

8.20 

5. 10 

5.20 

16 

16 

California 

26 

30 

21 

18 

15.0 

13.9 

8.00 

7.20 

6.80 

6.  50 

7.  40 

7.20 

5.  00 

5.30 

14 

16 

United  States. 

23.8 

27.0 

16.8 

16. 1 

12.5 

11.8 

7.80 

7.  94 

6.  29j  6.  08 

7.68 

7.  38 

4.96 

5. 16 

16.8 

17.7 

20 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  508. 


Table  13. — Averages  for  the  United  States  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of  farm  products. 


I'roducts. 

April  15. 

May  15. 

1 March  15. 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

1913 

1912 

1914 

1913 

1912 

Hogs per  100  pounds. . 

$7.80 

$7.  94 

$6.  78 

$6.17 

$9.  26 

$7.  45 

$6.  79 

$7.80 

$7.  62 

$5. 94 

Beef  cattle 

do 

6.  29 

6.  08 

5.15 

4.  67 

5.31 

6.01 

5.  36 

6.  28 

5.88 

4.  75 

Veal  calves 

do 

7. 68 

7.  38 

6.  22 

5.  96 

6.54 

7.17 

6.23 

7.  92 

7.  49 

6. 11 

Sheep 

do 

4.96 

5.16 

4.57 

4.  55 

6. 10 

4.91 

4.  74 

4.  77 

4. 97 

4. 12 

Lambs 

do 

6.  47 

6.  59 

5.  98 

5.  77 

7.47 

6.  66 

6. 16 

6.31 

6.  56 

5.  38 

Milch  cows 

...per  head.. 

59.60 

55.  34 

45. 14 

44.  81 

42.  22 

54.80 

45.  63 

59.23 

54.  00 

44.00 

Horses 

do 

138. 00 

148. 00 

142.  00 

147. 00 

154.  00 

145.  00 

144.  00 

138. 00 

146. 00 

140.00 

Honey,  comb.. . 

.per  pound. . 

.137 

.141 

.138 

.136 

.134 

.138 

.137 

.137 

.139 

.139 

Apples 

.per  bushel. . 

1.37 

.85 

1.15 

1.39 

1. 14 

.94 

1.29 

1.29 

.82 

1.04 

Peanuts 

.per  pound.. 

.049 

.048 

.049 

.049 

.054 

.047 

.049 

.047 

.047 

.050 

Beans  (dry) 

.per  bushel. . 

2.11 

2.11 

2.37 

2.20 

2. 16 

2. 18 

2.  52 

2.  05 

2. 10 

2.  42 

Sweet  potatoes . . 

do 

.92 

.94 

1.17 

.95 

.85 

.93 

1.  19 

.87 

.91 

1.02 

Cabbages per  100  pounds. . 

2.23 

1.15 

3.17 

1. 33 

2.29 

1.  58 

2.  98 

2.  03 

1.03 

2.88 

Onions 

.per  bushel. . 

1.60 

.79 

1.75 

1.19 

1.03 

.87 

1.77 

1.  55 

.77 

1.67 

Wool,  unwashed. 

.per  pound.. 

.168 

.177 

.173 

.157 

.223 

.163 

.178 

.164 

.184 

.169 

Clover  seed 

.per  bushel.. 

8.06 

11.00 

12.91 

8.79 

7.91 

10.  74 

12.  53 

8. 17 

10.  42 

12.89 

Timothy  seed 

do.... 

2. 28 

1.74 

7.  27 

5.17 

1.76 

7. 16 

2. 30 

1.72 

7.33 

Alfalfa  seed 

do 

6.77 

8.  36 

8.  21 

6. 60 

8. 19 

Broom  corn 

per  ton. . 

89. 00 

58. 00 

101.  00 

74.00 

204. 00 

53.  00 

83. 00 

91.00 

57. 00 

99. 00 

Cotton  seed 

do 

24.17 

21.89 

18.62 

26. 12 

21.88 

19.21 

23.60 

21.  55 

18.21 

Maple  sugar 

. . per  pound . . 

.125 

.130 

. 125 

. 123 

. 116 

. 124 

. 126 

. Ill 

Maple  sirup 

1. 10 

1.10 

1.08 

1. 08 

1. 09 

1. 10 

1.06 

1.05 

Hops 

, .per  pound. . 

.206 

. 150 

.182 

.204 

.134 

.372 

.205 

.401 

Paid  by  farmers: 

Bran 

per  ton. . 

28.  50 

24.69 

29.73 

25. 48 

26.  58 

24.59 

30.18 

27. 58 

24.96 

29.15 

Clover  seed . . . . 

.per  bushel. . 

9. 84 

12.90 

12.  90 

9.  45 

12.  30 

Timothy  seed. 

do 

2.  95 

2.  43 

2.  40 

2.  97 

2.  33 

Alfalfa  seed 

do 

8.17 

9. 99 

9.  75 

8.01 

9.  78 

Table  14. — Range  of  prices  of  agricultural  products  at  market  centers. 


Products  and  markets. 

May  1,  1914. 

April, 

1914. 

March, 

1914. 

April,  1913. 

April, 

1912. 

Wheat  per  bushel: 

No.  2 red  winter,  St.  Louis 

No.  2 red  winter,  Chicago 

$0.94  -$0.94-1 

$0. 92  -$0. 96 

$0. 92  -$0. 963 

$1. 04  -$1. 121 

$1. 02  -$1.  21 

.94i-  .951 

.921- 

.953 

.921- 

.961 

1.  02  - 1. 09i 

.99  - 

1.17 

No.  2 red  winter.  New  York  i 

1. 04  - 1. 04 

1.03  - 

1.  05 

1.05  - 

1.06 

1.12  - 1.151 

1. 061- 

1.23i 

Corn  per  bushel; 

No.  2 mixed,  St.  Louis 

No.  2,  Chicago 

. 70  - .70 

.68^ 

.71i 

.65  - 

.72 

.54  - 60i 

.76  - 

.83 

. 67  - . 67i 

.64  - 

.691 

.63  - 

.70 

. 54  - .57 

.74  - 

.811 

No.  2 mixed.  New  York  i 

Oats  per  bushel: 

No.  2,  St.  Louis 

No.  2,  Chicago 

. 40  - .40 

.71  - 

.381- 

.76i 

.41 

.681- 

.381- 

.72f 

.43 

.571-  .64 

.32*-  .35 

.79^- 

.55  - 

.801 

.59 

. 37  - .37 

.37  - 

.393 

.371- 

.393 

.34"-  .35i 

.54^- 

.58^ 

Rye  per  bushel:  No.  2,  Chicago 

Baled  hay  per  ton:  No.  1 timothy. 

. 63  - .63 

.60  - 

.63 

.591- 

.63 

. 60  - .64 

.91  - 

.961 

Chicago 

15. 00  -16. 00 

15. 00  -] 

L7.00 

14.  50  -] 

L6.00 

14.00  -17.00 

22. 00  -26. 00 

Hops  per  pound:  Choice,  New  York.. 

. 39  - .41 

.39  - 

.44 

.42  - 

.45 

.21  - .23 

.40  - 

.55 

Wool  per  pound: 

Ohio  fine  unwashed,  Boston 

. 22  - .22 

.22  - 

.22 

.22  - 

.22 

.21  - .23§ 

.201- 

.21 

Best  tub  washed,  St.  Louis 

.30-  .30 

.29  - 

.30 

.28  - 

.29 

.28-  .33 

.30  - 

.33 

Live  hogs  per  100  pounds:  Bulk  of 

sales,  Chicago 

8. 25  - 8. 35 

8.00  - 

8. 95 

8.20  - 

9.00 

8. 40  - 9. 29 

7.60  - 

8.05 

Butter  per  pound: 

Creamery,  extra.  New  York 

.25J-  .26 

.241- 

.26i 

.241- 

.32 

.301-  .37 

.301- 

.351 

Creamery,  extra,  Elgin 

.231-  .23J 

.231- 

.25 

.25  - 

.30 

.30-  .35 

.30  - 

.32 

Eggs  per  dozen: 

Average  best  fresh.  New  York 

.23  - .23 

.20  - 

.26 

.21  - 

.36 

.20-  .23 

.21  - 

.25 

Average  best  fresh,  St.  Louis 

.18J-  .18i 

.17  - 

.181 

.17i- 

.27 

.15^  .17 

.17^ 

.191 

Cheese  per  pound:  Colored ,2  New 

York 

.131-  .13f 

.13  - 

.161 

.16i- 

.17i 

.151-  .163 

.151- 

.19i 

1 F.  0.  b.  afloat. 

2 September  colored — September  to  April,  inclusive;  new  colored  May  to  July,  inclusive;  colored — 
August. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL,  OUTLOOK.  21 

EQUIVALENT  IN  YIELD  PER  ACRE  OF  100  PER  CENT  CONDITION  ON 

JUNE  1. 

Table  15. — The  equivalent  in  yield  per  acre  of  100  per  cent  condition  on  June  1 in 

each  State. 


States  and  Territories, 

Winter 

wheat. 

Spring 

wheat. 

1 

Oats.  1 

1 

1 

Barley. 

Rye. 

Hay. 

Cotton. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Tons. 

Pounds. 

26.0 

40.0  i 

30.0 

1.18 

38.0  1 

28.0 

1.21 

26.0 

41.0 

33.0 

19.5 

1.40 

37.0  1 

18.5 

1.32 

32.0  i 

1.24 

34.0 

20.0 

1.30 

22.5 

35.0 

29.0 

19.1 

1.33 

19.5 

34.0 

18.8 

1.60 

19.0 

35.0 

28.5 

18.0 

1.55 

18.0 

35.0 

16.0 

1.65 

17.5 

32.5 

32.0 

16.7 

1.60 

13.7 

24.5 

30.0 

14.0 

1.50 

250 

14.4 

27.5 

14.0 

1.50 

11.6 

21.0 

11.0 

1.55 

285 

12.9 

25.5 

11.5 

1.40 

280 

12.6 

23.0 

10.6 

1.65 

240 

20.0 

1.55 

145 

Ohio  

19.9 

40.0 

31.0 

19.0 

1.65 

Indiana,  

19.0 

36.0 

30.5 

18.0 

1.52 

Illinois 

19.8 

40.0 

31.0 

19.5 

1.50 

Michigan 

19.7 

36.0 

28.5 

16.7 

1.48 

Wisconsin 

22.5 

19.5 

38.0 

30.0 

19.0 

1.60 

Minnesota 

16.5 

36.0 

27.0 

21.5 

1.60 

Iowa  

24.8 

17.2 

36.0 

28.0 

20.0 

1.55 

Missotu'i  

18.0 

32.0 

27.0 

17.0 

1.45 

350 

North  Dakota 

12.5 

31.0 

23.0 

19.2 

1.40 

South  Dakota 

13.5 

31.0 

24.0 

19.5 

1.40 

Nebraska 

22.5 

15.5 

30.0 

24.5 

18.5 

1.40 

Kansas 

19.0 

1.5.0 

34.0 

23.0 

17.5 

1.45 

Kentucky 

14.5 

26.0 

29.0 

15.0 

1.  45 

Tennessee 

12.7 

25.5 

28.5 

13.3 

1.60 

247 

Alabama,  

13.4 

22.0 

12.  7 

1.65 

225 

Mississippi 

14.9 

22.5 

1.  70 

240 

T/Onisiana . .. 

24.5 

1.80 

230 

Texas 

16.4 

39.0 

30.0 

17.  5 

1.50 

212 

Oklahoma  

17.0 

35.0 

30.0 

15.0 

1.25 

220 

Arkansas 

13. 1 

27.5 

12.  7 

1.50 

240 

Montana 

29.0 

26.0 

48.0 

36.0 

23.0 

1.90 

Wyoming 

30.0 

28.0 

37.5 

33.0 

22.0 

2.25 

Colorado 

27.0 

26.5 

42.0 

38.0 

19.5 

2.  40 

New  Mexico 

24.3 

24.0 

37.0 

34.0 

2.  70 

Arizona 

32.0 

27.0 

45.0 

41.0 

3.  60 

Utah 

25.3 

30.0 

48.0 

42.0 

19.5 

3.00 

Nevada 

25.3 

31.0 

45.0 

41.0 

3.  00 

Idaho 

30.2 

28.0 

47.0 

43.0 

23.0 

3. 10 

Washington 

28.4 

21.0 

50.0 

42.0 

22.0 

2.  40 

Oregon 

24.6 

20.0 

38.0 

36.5 

17.8 

2.  25 

CaUfornia 

20.5 

41.0 

33.0 

19.0 

2.  05 



1 

United  States 

19.5 

15.3 

35.  4 

28.6 

18.4 

1.62 

231.9 

o 


US.DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

WK'  BULLETl 

599 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Wm.  A.  Taylor,  Chief. 

July  6,  1914. 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS  IN  THE 
PACIFIC  NORTHWEST. 


By  Byron  Hunter,  Agriculturut,  Office  of  Farm  Majiagemeut} 

INTRODUCTION. 

This  bulletin  deals  specifically  with  crops  and  systems  of  cropping 
that  may  be  used  in  economical  pork  production  in  the  Pacific  North- 
west. Scattered  here  and  there  throughout  the  Northwest  are  men 
who  are  successfully  producing  pork.  They  have  been  visited,  and 
their  methods,  crops,  and  feeding  systems  have  been  studied.  This 
bulletin  makes  the  practices  of  these  successful  men  available  to  all. 

Owing  to  the  rapid  growth  in  population  of  this  section  during  the 
last  decade,  the  demand  for  pork  has  increased  faster  than  the  sup- 
ply, and  there  is  littlo  reason  why  hog  raising  should  not  become  a 
more  important  industry  in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  Although  there 
have  been  some  outbreaks  of  hog  cholera,  the  Northwest  has  been 
remarkably  free  from  this  disease.  The  larger  cities  have  well- 
equipped  packing  houses,  and  modern  union  stockyards  are  in  opera- 
tion at  Portland,  Oreg.  During  recent  years  a large  percentage  of 
the  hogs  slaughtered  in  the  cities  of  Portland,  Tacoma,  Seattle,  and 
Spokane  have  been  shipped  from  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In 
addition  to  this,  enormous  quantities  of  eastern  bacon  and  lard  are 
annually  consumed  by  the  Pacific  Coast  States. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  PASTURES. 

Since  economical  pork  production  depends  largely  upon  the  con- 
sumption of  a great  deal  of  cheaply  grown  feed,  the  pasture  should 
be  so  managed  that  the  forage  produced  will  be  clean,  tender,  and 
palatable.  In  practice,  hog  pastures  are  generally  managed  in  one  of 
three  ways:  (1)  Continuous  close  grazing,  (2)  alternate  pasturing 
of  equal  areas,  and  (3)  pasturing  the  meadow. 

Note.— This  publication,  or  reprint  of  Department  Bulletin  No.  G8,  issued  February  2.5, 19U,  is  in  tended 
to  encourage  hog  raising  in  the  Pacific  Northwest;  it  is  especially  adapted  to  Washington,  Oregon,  and 
Idaho. 

1 Mr.  Hunter  is  now  State  leader  in  charge  of  Farm-Management  Field  Studies  and  Demonstrations  in 
the  State  of  Washington,  and  is  employed  cooperatively  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  the  State  College  of  Washington. 

45611°— Bull.  599—14 1 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLET 


)9. 

CONTINUOUS  CLOSE  GRAZING. 

The  method  in  most  common  use  is  to  turn  in  all  the  hogs  the  pas- 
ture will  support,  leaving  them  in  the  field  during  the  entire  season. 
Usually  the  pasture  is  kept  closely  grazed.  Too  often  it  is  overgrazed, 
the  plants  being  cropped  so  closely  that  the  stand  is  soon  ruined. 
The  pasture  then  becomes  little  better  than  a dry  lot,  and  the  hogs 
make  unsatisfactory  gains.  When  the  feed  in  the  pasture  becomes 
scarce,  either  the  number  of  hogs  per  acre  should  he  reduced  or  other 
forage  provided. 

ALTERNATE  PASTURING  OF  EQUAL  AREAS. 

One  of  the  most  satisfactory  ways  of  managing  a pasture  is  to  divide 
it  into  two  or  more  fields  of  equal  area.  These  fields  are  then  used 
alternately,  the  hogs  remaining  in  each  about  a week  or  10  days. 
In  the  case  of  clover  and  alfalfa  the  growth  is  allowed  to  become 
3 to  4 inches  high  before  the  hogs  are  turned  in  to  eat  it  off  quickly. 
When  the  pasture  consists  of  such  crops  as  rape,  kale,  and  vetch, 
which  will  not  stand  close  grazing,  the  growth  is  permitted  to  reach 
a height  of  8 or  10  inches  before  the  hogs  are  turned  in. 

Changing  the  hogs  from  field  to  field  gives  the  pasture  a period  of 
rest,  during  which  the  plants  recuperate  and  grow  rapidly.  When 
the  stock  is  returned  to  the  field  the  forage  is  clean,  tender,  and  pala- 
table and  large  quantities  are  consumed.  Owing  to  the  rapid  growth 
made  while  at  rest,  a pasture  that  is  subdivided  and  the  areas  grazed 
alternately  is  capable  of  carrying  a much  larger  number  of  hogs  per 
acre,  other  conditions  being  equal,  than  one  that  is  continuously 
pastured. 

Hogs  usually  graze  a pasture  somewhat  unevenly,  some  areas 
being  eaten  off  much  more  closely  than  others.  To  keep  down  the 
weeds  and  make  the  growth  come  on  evenly,  the  pasture  is  clipped 
with  a mower  immediately  after  the  hogs  are  removed.  Hogs  are 
inclined  to  root  when  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  wet  or  damp.  For 
this  reason  the  pasture,  if  under  irrigation,  is  irrigated  just  after  the 
hogs  are  changed  from  one  pasture  lot  to  the  next.  This  gives  the 
surface  of  the  ground  time  to  dry  before  the  forage  is  large  enough 
to  be  grazed. 

PASTURING  THE  MEADOW. 

Many  successful  hog  raisers  prefer  to  use  such  crops  as  clover  and 
alfalfa  for  both  pasture  and  hay  at  the  same  time.  The  number  of 
hogs  turned  into  the  field  is  so  limited  that  the  usual  crops  of  hay  are 
made.  The  chief  advantages  of  this  method  are  (1)  the  presence  of  an 
abundance  of  feed,  (2)  the  meadow  is  not  grazed  closely  enough  for 
the  stand  to  be  injured,  (3)  it  is  not  necessary  to  subdivide  the  pasture 
into  smaller  areas  for  alternate  pasturing,  and  (4)  the  changing  of 
the  hogs  from  one  inclosure  to  another  is  obviated. 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS. 


3 


When  the  number  of  animals  pastured  is  so  limited  that  the  usual 
hay  crops  are  made,  the  growth  becomes  so  coarse  and  woody  that 
they  do  not  consume  as  much  forage  as  is  desirable  for  economical 
gains,  as  the  hogs  relish  the  young  shoots  best.  When  the  forage 
becomes  too  large  to  furnish  desirable  feed,  an  area  near  the  watering 
place  is  clipped  with  a mower.  This  should  be  large  enough  to 
furnish  the  desired  amount  of  pasture.  In  a few  days  the  clipped 
area  produces  a vigorous  growth  of  new  shoots,  upon  which  the  hogs 
feed  without  materially  disturbing  the  rest  of  the  meadow.  If  the 
area  first  mowed  is  not  sufficient  to  furnish  the  required  feed,  more 
of  the  meadow  is  clipped,  as  necessity  may  demand.  To  prevent  the 


Fig.  1.— Hogs  on  alfalfa  pasture  without  other  feed.  Note  their  thin  condition  and  ungainly  shape,  espe- 
cially the  older  hog  on  the  left. 


stand  of  these  clipped  areas  from  becoming  injured  by  overgrazing, 
different  portions  of  the  meadow  are  used  in  this  way  from  year 
to  year. 

GRAIN  RATION  WHILE  HOGS  ARE  ON  PASTURE. 

While  the  cost  of  producing  pork  may  be  reduced  materially  by 
the  use  of  such  roughage  as  alfalfa  hay,  roots,  or  green-pasture  for- 
age, it  is  desirable  to  feed  grain  or  other  concentrated  feed  in  addition. 
Mature,  dry  brood  sows  are  sometimes  maintained  in  an  apparently 
satisfactory  condition  on  good  pasture  alone.  Young  growing  hogs, 
on  the  other  hand,  usually  become  ungainly  in  shape,  big  bellied,  and 
thin  in  flesh  or  stunted  when  compelled  to  subsist  on  pasture  alone. 
Figure  1 illustrates  the  condition  of  hogs  run  on  pasture  without  other 
feed. 


4 


FARMERS^  BULLE:';X  599. 


Hog  growers  differ  quite  widely  regarding  the  quantity  of  grain 
that  should  be  fed  while  on  pasture.  Some  feed  a full  grain  ration, 
i.  e.,  all  the  grain  the  hog  will  consume.  Others  feed  a medium  ration, 
one  that  is  equal  to  about  2 to  3 per  cent  of  the  live  weight  of  the  hog. 
Still  others  prefer  a light  grain  ration,  one  that  is  equal  to  only  about 
1 per  cent  of  the  live  weight  of  the  hog.  Occasionally  men  are  found 
who  run  young  shotes  on  pasture  without  other  feed.  This  is  a mis- 
take, for  it  almost  invariably  results  in  a stunted  hog.  No  fixed  and 
fast  rule  can  be  laid  down,  for  the  supplemental  grain  ration  which 
should  be  fed  in  conjunction  with  green  pasture  depends  upon  a 
number  of  factors,  the  more  important  of  which  are  (1)  the  age  at 
which  the  hogs  are  to  be  marketed,  (2)  the  price  of  grain,  and  (3) 
the  plentifulness  and  quality  of  the  pasture. 

RATIONS  FOR  HOGS  OF  VARIOUS  CONDITIONS  AND  MARKET  AGES. 

If  hogs  are  to  be  marketed  when  7 to  9 months  old,  it  is  necessary 
to  feed  them  about  aU  the  grain  they  will  consume,  in  addition  to  the 
pasture,  in  order  to  make  them  reach  the  weight  demanded  by  the 
market,  170  to  225  pounds.  Hogs  that  are  marketed  when  10  to  12 
months  old  are  usually  maintained  on  pasture  alone  during  the  graz- 
ing season.  If  fed  at  all,  the  grain  ration  is  very  light.  This  results 
m a slow  daily  gam,  but  a greater  percentage  of  the  growth  is  made 
from  the  cheaply  grown  forage.  The  added  cost  of  maintaining  a hog 
until  10  to  12  months  old,  however,  usually  more  than  equals  the 
saving  of  the  grain  ration. 

Mature  breeding  stock  that  is  not  expected  to  make  any  gain  in 
weight  requires  but  little,  if  any,  additional  feed  when  on  good  pasture. 
Hogs  that  are  thin  in  flesh  and  nearly  grown  may  be  expected  to 
make  small  daily  gains  without  other  feed  when  on  the  best  of  pas- 
ture. Pigs  and  small  shotes  usually  become  stunted  when  on  pas- 
ture unless  given  a Uberal  quantity  of  additional  feed.  Young  hogs 
should  be  so  fed  that  they  grow  rapidly  instead  of  becoming  stunted. 
During  the  fattening  period,  hogs  on  pasture  should  be  fed  aU  the 
grain  they  will  eat  up  clean  three  times  a day. 

THE  PRICE  OF  GRAIN. 

Owing  to  the  fluctuation  in  the  price  of  hogs  and  of  grain,  the  sup- 
plemental grain  ration  is  sometimes  expensive.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances there  is  great  temptation  to  place  the  hogs  upon  an  exclu- 
sive pasture  ration.  This  seldom  pays,  for  it  usually  takes  approxi- 
mately as  much  concentrated  feed  in  the  end,  and  much  more  time, 
to  fit  for  market  hogs  which  have  been  on  an  exclusive  pasture  diet 
as  is  required  for  hogs  fed  liberally  while  on  pasture.  Under  extreme 
circumstances  mature  breeding  stock  or  hogs  which  are  nearly  grown 
may  be  carried  on  good  pasture  until  cheaper  concentrated  feed  can  be 
obtamed. 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS. 


5 


QUALITY  AND  ABUNDANCE  OF  PASTURE. 

The  composition  of  pasture  forage  is  quite  variaiile.  Alfalfa, 
clover,  vetch,  peas,  etc.,  furnish  feed  that  is  much  richer  in  protein 
than  most  other  crops.  Generally,  therefore,  hogs  which  are  feeding 
upon  leguminous  pasture  require  slightly  less  concentrated  feed  than 
when  grazing  upon  nonleguminous  pasture,  such  as  timothy,  orchard 
grass,  bluegrass,  or  the  cereals. 

It  frequently  happens  that  a farmer  has  more  hogs  than  his  pasture 
is  capable  of  supporting.  When  such  is  the  case  the  pasture  will  go 
much  farther  if  a full  grain  ration  is  fed.  The  more  grain  a hog  con- 
sumes the  less  he  will  feed  upon  the  pasture. 

In  general,  pigs  and  shotes  should  be  kept  in  a thrifty,  growing  con- 
dition at  all  times.  It  never  pays  to  allow  them  to  cease  growing 


Fig.  2.— a herd  of  brood  sows  on  pasture.  They  were  fed  enough  grain  to  keep  them  in  good  condition. 


and  become  stunted.  Brood  sows,  likewise,  must  be  kept  in  good 
flesh  (not  fat)  if  large  litters  of  strong,  healthy  pigs  are  to  be  expected. 
Figure  2 shows  a herd  of  well-kept  brood  sows  on  pasture. 

In  gathering  the  material  for  this  bulletin  it  was  quite  generally 
observed,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  men  who  are  enthusiastic  pork 
producers  feed  a liberal  supplemental  grain  ration  to  young,  growing 
hogs  when  on  pasture.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  think  there  is 
little  profit  in  raising  hogs  run  them  very  largely  on  pasture  without 
other  feed  during  the  grazing  season. 

HOGGING  OFF  CROPS. 

Turning  hogs  into  a standing  field  of  mature  or  nearly  mature 
wheat,  barley,  peas,  or  corn  and  allowing  them  to  feed  at  will  until 
the  crop  is  consumed  is  called  hogging  off”  or  '^hogging  down”  the 


6 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  599. 


crop.  To  some  this  may  appear  to  be  a wasteful  practice.  Under  . 
good  management,  however,  it  is  a very  satisfactory  and  economical 
method  of  utilizing  limited  areas  of  these  crops. 

ADVANTAGES  IN  HOGGING  OFF  CROPS. 

Some  of  the  advantages  in  hogging  off  crops  are  (1)  the  cost  of 
harvesting  and  marketing  the  crop  is  saved,  (2)  the  labor  of  caring 
for  hogs  is  greatly  reduced,  (3)  the  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  is 
increased,  (4)  the  droppings  of  the  animals  are  distributed  quite 
evenly,  and  (5)  the  hogs  are  given  exercise.  It  costs  from  15  to  25 
cents  per  bushel  to  harvest  and  market  wheat  in  the  greater  part  of 
the  wheat  belt  of  the  Pacific  Northwest,  the  cost  varying  with  the 
yield,  the  method  of  harvesting  and  thrashing,  and  the  distance  the 
wheat  is  hauled  to  market.  In  some  of  the  more  arid  wheat-growing 
districts  of  both  Oregon  and  Washington  the  yield  of  wheat  is  fre- 
quently as  low  as  6 to  8 bushels  per  acre.  The  cost  of  harvesting  and 
marketing  such  crops  runs  from  35  to  40  cents  per  bushel.  The  cost 
of  harvesting  and  marketing  barley  is  approximately  the  same  as 
that  of  wheat.  When  the  hogs  are  so  managed  that  the  crop  is 
thoroughly  cleaned  up,  hogging  off  the  crop  practically  saves  the  cost 
of  harvesting  and  marketing.  In  the  case  of  hght-yielding  crops  this 
saving  is  considerable. 

Most  of  the  crops  that  are  suitable  for  hogging  off  are  utilized 
during  the  busiest  season  of  the  year,  i.  e.,  at  a time  when  it  is  very 
desirable  that  the  hogs  require  as  little  attention  as  possible.  If 
turned  into  a mature  field  of  wheat,  peas,  or  corn  and  provided  with 
water,  shade,  and  salt,  the  hogs  require  very  little  other  attention. 

Most  of  the  arable  lands  of  the  Pacific  Northwest  would  be  mate- 
rially benefited  by  the  addition  of  more  organic  matter.  When  the 
crop  is  hogged  off,  the  straw,  pea  vines,  or  cornstalks,  as  the  case  may 
be,  are  left  on  the  ground.  By  cutting  this  material  thoroughly  in 
the  fall  of  the  year  with  a sharp  disk  harrow  and  plowing  it  under,  the 
soil  is  enriched  in  vegetable  matter.  This,  in  turn,  greatly  reduces 
the  tendency  of  the  soil  to  wash.  The  washing  of  soil  due  to  the 
burning  of  straw  and  consequent  lack  of  humus  is  well  shown  in 
figure  3. 

In  hogging  off  the  crop,  the  droppings  of  the  animals  are  scattered 
quite  evenly  over  the  field. 

USUAL  GRAIN  CROPS  HOGGED  OFF. 

The  Pacific  Northwest  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  hogging  off  of 
crops.  The  wet  season  occurs  during  the  winter  months  and  the 
dry  season  during  the  summer.  This  gives  a long  period  in  which 
crops  may  be  used  in  this  way.  The  principal  crops  that  are  suitable 
for  hogging  down  are  wheat,  field  peas,  corn,  and  barley. 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS. 


7 


Wieat. — Wheat  is  generally  used  from  the  time  the  first  spots  in 
the  field  are  nearly  ripe,  about  the  stiff-dough  stage,  until  the  stubble 
field  is  open  or  until  field  peas  or  some  other  crops  are  ready  for  use. 
It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  the  season  for  using  wheat  is  from  four  to 
six  weeks.  If  used  during  a longer  period,  there  may  be  considerable 
loss  from  shattering,  and  the  autumn  rains  in  some  localities  may  also 
damage  the  crop. 

A soft  variety  of  wheat  with  a smooth  club  type  of  head  is  best 
suited  for  hogging  down.  The  club  head  does  not  shatter  so  readily 
as  most  other  types.  The  true  hard  and  bearded  varieties,  such 
as  Turkey,  are  not  suitable.  The  kernels  become  so  hard  and  the 
beards  are  so  severe  on  the  hogs’  mouths  that  they  do  not  eat 
enough  to  make  economical  gains. 


Fig.  3.— Soil  washing  near  Dayton,  Wash.,  in  the  spring  of  1910.  This  land  was  summer-fallowed  during 
the  season  of  1909  and  planted  to  winter  wheat. 


On  the  farm  of  W.  II.  Steen,  Umatilla  County,  Oreg.,  90  hogs  pas- 
tured from  July  17  to  August  24  on  11  acres  of  ripe  standing  wheat, 
estimated  to  yield  15  bushels  per  acre,  made  an  average  gain  in 
weight  of  160  pounds  per  acre,  worth  $14.40.  In  another  instance 
M.  E.  Schreck,  of  Whitman  County,  Wash.,  pastured  109  head  of  hogs 
on  acres  of  standing  wheat  and  1 acre  of  pasture  from  July  30  to 
August  17.  The  hogs  made  a gain  of  212  pounds  per  acre  and  gave 
a net  value  per  acre  of  $15.73.  The  net  returns  from  44  acres  of 
wheat  alongside,  yielding  19f  bushels  per  acre,  were  only  $8.04  per 
acre. 

Field  peas. — The  field  pea  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  crops  to 
harvest  with  hogs.  The  quality  of  feed  furnished  is  of  the  very  best, 
hogs  are  very  fond  of  the  mature  peas,  and  under  good  management 


8 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  599. 


the  crop  is  gathered  with  but  very  little  waste.  Most  varieties  of 
peas  are  comparatively  large  and  difficult  to  cover.  What  is  shat- 
tered usually  lies  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  until  picked  up  later. 

The  hogs  are  turned  into  the  field  about  the  time  the  last  peas 
are  nearly  mature.  In  most  districts  they  may  be  used  until  about 
October  1,  or  until  there  is  danger  of  the  crop  being  damaged  by  wet 
weather.  A protracted  autumn  rain  faffing  upon  a heavy  crop  that 
the  hogs  have  not  cleaned  up  may  cause  the  peas  to  sprout.  To 
prevent  this  the  vines  are  sometimes  burned  as  soon  after  the  rain  as 
they  are  dry  enough.  Burning  the  vines  leaves  the  peas  lying  upon 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  not  necessary  to  burn  the  vines, 
however,  if  a movable  fence  is  used  and  the  hogs  are  made  to  clean 
up  the  crop  in  small  areas  that  will  last  from  two  to  three  weeks  each. 
Since  ripe,  mature  peas  are  rich  in  protein,  green  succulent  feed  in 
addition  to  the  peas  will  help  to  balance  the  ration. 

Corn. — Where  corn  is  successfully  grown  it  is  an  excellent  crop  to 
hog  down.  Carefully  conducted  tests  at  the  Minnesota  experiment 
station  show  that  hogs  waste  no  more  corn  in  the  field  than  when  fed 
in  lots,  and  that  they  gather  it  as  clean  as  most  men  do  in  husking.^ 
Farm  experience  also  bears  out  this  conclusion.  Corn  is  advanta- 
geously used  from  the  tune  the  ears  are  well  glazed  until  the  weather 
becomes  unfavorable  and  the  ground  muddy.  In  some  districts  of 
the  Northwest,  where  the  rainfall  is  scant,  corn  can  be  hogged  off 
far  into  the  winter.  There  is  slightly  less  waste  if  a movable  fence 
is  used  and  the  hogs  are  not  turned  mto  more  corn  than  they  can 
consume  m 15  or  20  days.  Especially  is  this  true  when  the  ground 
becomes  wet  and  muddy. 

Barley. — As  a crop  to  hog  off,  barley  is  used  during  the  summer, 
autumn,  and  winter.  Because  the  beards,  when  dry  and  hard,  are 
so  severe  on  the  mouth  of  the  hog,  the  common  beardless  barley  is 
generally  used  during  the  summer  and  early  autumn.  The  bearded 
varieties  usually  outyield  the  beardless  considerably,  and  for  this 
reason  the  former  are  generally  preferred  for  late  autumn  and  whiter 
use.  There  are  some,  however,  who  prefer  the  beardless  varieties 
for  all  seasons. 

If  sown  very  early  m the  spring,  beardless  barley  generally  ripens 
about  ten  days  or  two  weeks  earlier  than  winter  wheat.  This  makes 
it  one  of  the  first  crops  available  for  hogging  off  in  the  early  summer. 
The  hogs  are  turned  into  the  field  when  the  first  patches  are  ripening, 
or  when  the  kernels  are  in  the  stiff-dough  stage. 

Hogs  do  only  fairly  well  on  mature  bearded  barley  when  the  beards 
are  dry  and  stiff.  After  the  autumn  rains  have  softened  the  beards 
and  kernels,  however,  they  take  to  it  readily.  For  late  autumn  and 


1 Oaumnitz,  D.  A.,  Wilson,  A.  D.,  and  Bassett,  L.  B.  Pork  production.  Minnesota  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  Bulletin  104,  p.  63-119,  9 fig.,  1907. 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  EOR  HOGS. 


9 


winter  use  the  bearded  varieties  are  allowed  to  stand  ui  the  field  until 
the  fall  rahis  have  set  hi  well.  This  usually  gives  plenty  of  time 
after  harvest  for  the  hogs  to  glean  the  stubble  field.  Blue  barley,  a 
bearded  variety,  is  generally  sown  for  late  fall  and  winter  use.  When 
allowed  to  stand  in  the  field  it  does  not  shatter  and  sprout  nearly  so 
easily  as  wheat  or  the  so-called  winter  varieties  of  barley. 

On  a farm  hi  Umatilla  County,  Oreg.,  during  November,  1910,  80 
hogs  were  pastured  18  days  and  98  hogs  10  days  on  11.4  acres  of  bar- 
ley on  a steep  hillside.  The  gain  in  weight  averaged  230  pounds  per 
acre,  having  a value  of  $18.35  per  acre.  The  estimated  yield  of 


Fig.  4.— a hillside  on  the  farm  of  W.  H.  Steen,  Umatilla  County,  Oreg.,  too  steep  for  the  use  of  a binder, 
but  satisfactorily  harvested  by  hogs.  The  shotes  in  the  picture  are  gleaning  the  barley  after  the  fattening 
hogs  have  taken  the  greater  part  of  the  feed. 


barley  was  21  bushels  per  acre.  Figure  4 shows  the  hillside  with 
shotes  gleaning  the  barley  after  the  fattening  hogs  have  taken  off 
practically  all  the  feed. 

DETERMINING  THE  AREA  TO  BE  HOGGED  OFF. 

In  order  to  reduce  the  waste  to  a minimum,  the  area  of  each  crop 
hogged  off  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  up.  Owing  to  the  variation 
in  crop  yields  and  the  quantity  of  grain  that  hogs  of  different  sizes 
will  consume,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  determine  the  acreage  of  each 
crop  to  be  used  in  this  way.  Suppose  a portion  of  the  main  winter- 
wheat  crop  is  to  be  fenced  and  hogged  off  from  the  time  the  grain  is 
just  past  the  stiff-dough  stage,  say  July  10,  until  the  stubble  field  is 
open,  August  15.  What  area  of  the  winter  wheat  shall  be  set  aside 
45611°— Bull.  599—14 2 


10  FARMERS^  BULLETIN  599. 

to  be  used  in  this  way?  This  may  be  determined  in  two  ways,  as 
follows : 

(1)  When  the  first  spots  in  the  field  are  nearly  ripe  or  when  the  kernels  have  just 
passed  the  stiff-dough  stage,  measure  and  fence  a small  trial  area,  enough  to  last  the 
herd  of  hogs  for  only  a few  days.  From  July  10  to  August  15  is  36  days.  If  a trial 
area  of  one  acre  lasts  the  herd  6 days,  as  many  acres  of  wheat  must  be  reserved  as  the 
number  of  times  6 is  contained  in  36,  or  6 acres. 

(2)  By  the  second  method,  the  yield  of  the  crop  per  acre  and  the  quantity  of  feed 
that  the  herd  of  hogs  will  consume  per  day  are  estimated.  Suppose  that  the  yield 
of  wheat  is  30  bushels,  or  1,800  pounds,  per  acre  and  the  herd  of  hogs  will  consume  400 
pounds  of  wheat  per  day.  If  400  pounds  of  wheat  are  consumed  in  one  day,  an  acre, 
or  1,800  pounds,  will  last  4.5  days.  If  one  acre  lasts  4.5  days,  8 acres  will  be  required 
to  last  36  days,  i.  e.,  from  July  10  to  August  15. 

The  quantity  of  wheat  that  the  herd  of  hogs  will  consume  per  day 
can  be  determined  quite  accurately  by  weighing  their  feed  for  a few 
days  just  before  they  are  turned  into  the  field.  In  the  case  of  growing 
hogs,  they  will  consume  a little  more  each  day  as  they  grow  older. 

THE  AREA  OF  GRAIN  TO  HOG  OFF  AT  ONE  TIME. 

Crops  are  hogged  off  in  two  ways:  (1)  By  subdividing  the  field  with 
a movable  fence  into  small  areas  that  will  last  the  hogs  from  10  to  20 
days  and  (2)  by  turning  the  hogs  into  the  entire  field  in  the  begin- 
ning. 

No  data  are  at  hand  showing  which  of  these  methods  is  more 
economical.  While  both  are  used  in  the  Pacific  Northwest,  the  latter 
is  the  one  generally  practiced.  Where  crops  are  used  in  this  way 
during  the  late  fall  and  winter  in  the  more  humid  portions  of  the 
wheat  belt  and  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  where  the  autumn 
rains  are  frequently  heavy,  the  area  should  probably  be  limited  so 
that  it  will  be  cleaned  up  in  15  or  20  days.  In  the  arid  and  semi- 
arid  districts  or  when  used  during  the  dry  season  in  the  more  humid 
localities,  there  is  probably  no  good  reason  why  the  area  hogged  off 
should  not  be  all  that  the  hogs  will  clean  up  nicely  during  the  season. 
Much  larger  areas  doubtless  can  be  hogged  off  on  sandy  or  gravelly 
soils  than  on  clay  soils  that  become  sticky  when  wet. 

CROPS  SUITABLE  FOR  PASTURE  AND  HOGGING  OFF. 

The  three  Pacific  Northwestern  States  to  which  this  bulletin  is 
primarily  applicable  may  be  divided  into  three  distinct  agricultural 
districts:  (1)  Western  Oregon  and  western  Washington — that  portion 
of  these  two  States  lying  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  (2)  the  wheat 
belt,  and  (3)  the  irrigated  valleys.  Because  of  their  great  variation 
in  topography,  elevation,  rainfall,  soil,  temperature,  etc.,  these  three 
districts  present  a wide  range  of  agricultural  possibilities.  For  this 
reason  the  crops  that  may  be  used  in  economical  hog  production  in 
each  area  are  discussed  separately. 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS. 


11 


CROPS  FOR  WESTERN  OREGON  AND  WESTERN  WASHINGTON. 

The  moist,  mild  climate  of  this  district  makes  it  possible  to  provide 
an  abundance  of  cheaply  grown  forage  for  hogs  throughout  the  entire 
year.  The  number  of  crops  which  may  be  used  for  this  purpose  is 
very  great.  The  growmg  of  most  of  them  is  discussed  in  detah  in 
Farmers’  Bulletm  271  of  this  department,  ^‘Forage-Crop  Practises 
m Western  Oregon  and  Western  Washington,”  to  which  the  reader 
is  referred.  Only  such  points  of  information  as  can  not  be  easily 
found  elsewhere  are  presented  here. 

USE  OF  VARIOUS  PASTURE  CROPS. 

Table  I shows  suitable  pasture  crops  in  western  Oregon  and  western 
Washington,  with  the  dates  of  planting  and  use. 


Table  1. —Pasture  crops  for  western  Oregon  and  western  Washington. 


Crops. 

When  planted. 

Approximate  dates  when  used. 

Number 
of  hogs 
an  acre 
will 

pasture.i 

Clover  

A previous  year 

April  1 to  November  1 

8 to  16 
8 to  16 

Alfalfa 

do 

do 

Rape  in  rows 

April  1, 15,  and  30 

June  1 to  November  1 

8 to  14 

Rape  and  oats 

April  25  to  May  15 

J line  25  to  N ovember  1 

6 to  15 

Rape  and  clover 

May  15  to  June  1 

July  1 to  November  1 

6 to  15 

Rape 

July  (in  com  at  last  cultiva- 
tion). 

do 

October  1 to  April  1 

5 to  8 

Vetch  and  wheat,  vetch  and 

do 

5 to  8 

oats,  or  vetch  alone. 

Vetch  and  wheat  or  vetch  and 

September  (on  spring  stubble) . 

November  1 to  April  1 

5 to  8 

oats. 

English  rye*grass 

Early  spring  or  early  fall 

November  1 to  July  1 

5 to  14 

6 to  12 

Winter  wheat 

September  1 to  October  15 

February,  March,  and  April... 

Vetch 

September 

March  to  July  1 

8 to  16 

1 The  number  of  hogs  that  can  be  pastured  per  acre  depends  upon  (1)  the  productiveness  of  the  soil,  (2) 
the  variation  of  the  season,  (3)  the  management  of  the  pasture,  (4)  the  size  of  the  hogs,  and  (5)  the  kind  and 
quantity  of  other  feed  the  hogs  receive  in  addition  to  the  pasture. 


From  a study  of  Table  I it  will  be  seen  that  pasture  may  be  provided 
for  swine  in  western  Oregon  and  western  Washington  throughout  the 
entire  year.  It  is  not  mtended  that  aU  of  these  crops  shall  be  used 
on  any  one  farm.  The  purpose  of  the  table  is  to  assist  the  farmer  in 
the  selection  of  pasture  crops  which  may  meet  the  needs  and  condi- 
tions of  his  farm. 

If  intended  for  late  fall,  winter,  and  early  spring  use,  a pasture 
should  not  be  grazed  during  the  autumn,  in  order  that  a large  amount 
of  forage  may  accumulate.  This  is  necessary  with  almost  all  winter 
forage  crops,  for  growth  practically  ceases  when  winter  begins.  The 
forage  that  is  allowed  to  accumulate  during  the  autumn  is  grazed 
during  the  winter. 

It  must  be  understood  also  that  there  are  times  during  the  winter 
when  most  soils  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  become  so  wet  that 
the  tramping  of  the  hogs  does  a great  deal  of  injury  by  puddling  the 
soil.  For  this  reason  it  is  generally  considered  best  to  remove  the 
hogs  from  the  pasture  when  a heavy  rain  falls.  This  is  not  always 


12 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  599. 


necessary,  however,  as,  for  example,  on  sandy  soils  and  pastures 
with  a close  grass  sod. 

Clover. — Of  the  legumes,  red  clover  for  well-drained  soils  and 
alsike  for  wet  lands  are  generally  the  most  satisfactory.  The  clovers 
make  their  maximum  growth  during  the  months  of  April,  May,  and 
June.  When  the  summer  drought  comes  on,  the  quantity  of  forage 
produced  gradually  decreases.  If  a clover  pasture  is  utilized  to  its 
fullest  capacity  durmg  the  spring  and  early  summer,  it  is  necessary 
to  provide  additional  green  feed  for  the  dry  season.  This  may  be 
done  by  grazing  the  clover  meadow  during  the  summer  after  removing 
a crop  of  hay. 

Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  is  not  used  so  generally  as  clover  for  hog  pasture 
west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains.  It  has  been  tried  in  many  localities 
with  varying  degrees  of  success.  It  has  given  best  satisfaction  on 
the  sandy  or  loamy  soils  along  the  watercourses  where  the  water  table 
is  at  least  4 feet  below  the  surface.  AKalfa  is  highly  successful  in  the 
Umpqua  and  Rogue  River  Valleys  on  irrigated  and  subirrigated 
land.  Under  conditions  favorable  to  its  growth,  it  produces  an 
abundance  of  feed  from  early  spring  until  late  in  the  fall. 

Rajye  in  cultivated  rows. — If  grown  in  rows  and  kept  well  cultivated, 
rape  furnishes  excellent  green  forage  during  the  dry  season  when 
clover  pasture  is  cut  short  by  the  summer  drought.  In  growing  rape 
in  rows  the  land  is  prepared  early  and  kept  in  good  condition  until 
planting  time.  The  best  results  are  secured  by  making  three  plantings 
on  approximately  April  1,  15,  and  30.  These  three  areas  are  then 
pastured  alternately,  the  hogs  being  changed  from  one  to  the  other. 
By  thorough  cultivation  rape  can  be  kept  growing  all  summer.  It  is 
usually  large  enough  to  pasture  with  light  hogs  in  6 to  8 weeks  after 
planting.  Before  brood  sows  and  other  grown  hogs  are  turned  on 
the  rape,  it  should  be  large  enough  so  that  they  will  feed  upon  the 
leaves  instead  of  biting  off  the  stem  or  pulling  up  the  plants.  When 
the  fall  rains  come,  rape  makes  a vigorous  growth  and  can  be  used 
until  the  ground  is  so  wet  that  the  soil  is  injured  by  the  tramping  of 
the  hogs. 

Rape  and  oats. — Summer  pasture  is  also  provided  by  sowing  1 
bushel  of  oats  and  4 pounds  of  rape  seed  per  acre  during  the  latter 
part  of  April  or  early  in  May.  If  sown  too  early  in  the  spring  the 
rains  pack  the  soil  so  hard  that  the  rape  does  poorly.  Oats  and  rape 
pasture  is  used  from  the  time  the  growth  is  5 or  6 inches  high  until 
winter  begins.  When  hogs  are  pastured  on  rape  and  oats  they  do 
not  work  on  the  latter  very  much  (unless  the  pasture  is  grazed  closely) 
until  the  oats  are  nearly  ripe.  In  stripping  the  ripe  grain  from  the 
straw  considerable  is  dropped  on  the  ground  and  covered  by  the 
tramjiing  of  the  hogs.  The  grain  that  is  covered  in  this  way  germi- 
nates when  the  fall  rains  begin.  Both  the  oats  and  rape  then  grow 
vigorously  and  make  excellent  fall  and  winter  pasture. 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS. 


13 


Winter  pasture  is  also  provided  by  sowing  rape  with  oats  intended 
for  hay  or  grain.  When  sown  in  this  way  the  rape  grows  but  little 
until  after  the  oats  are  harvested  and  the  autumn  rains  have  begun. 

Rape  and  clover. — One  of  the  most  satisfactory  ways  of  providing 
summer  pasture  is  to  sow  rape  and  clover  together  late  in  May  or 
early  in  June.  For  the  details  of  this  method,  see  Farmers’  Bulletin 
271  of  this  department. 

Rape  in  corn. — From  3 to  4 pounds  of  rape  seed  per  acre  are  some- 
times sown  in  corn  during  July,  just  before  the  last  cultivation.  If 
the  corn  is  planted  on  a well-pre})ared  seed  bed  and  kept  thoroughly 
cultivated,  so  that  the  soil  will  remain  moist,  the  rape  usually  germi- 
nates in  about  five  days.  It  then  furnishes  excellent  green  succulent 
forage  during  the  autumn  while  the  corn  is  being  hogged  off.  If  the 


Fig.  5. — A one-horse  disk  grain  drill  used  for  planting  grain  between  the  rows  of  standing  com. 


corn  crop  is  husked  or  cut  and  removed  from  the  field  and  the  rape 
allowed  to  grow  until  late  in  the  fall,  the  rape  furnishes  good  pasture 
from  November  1 to  April  1. 

Vetch  and  wheat,  or  vetch  and  oats,  or  vetch  alone. — Vetch  sown  alone 
or  with  wheat  or  oats  in  corn  at  the  last  cultivation  or  in  the  early  fall 
on  spring-plowed  stubble  land  furnishes  pasture  for  hogs  during  the 
late  fall,  winter,  and  early  spring.  One  bushel  of  vetch  and  a bushel 
of  oats  or  40  pounds  of  wheat  are  used  per  acre.  If  sown  alone,  from 
90  to  120  pounds  of  vetch  seed  are  required  per  acre.  The  seed  is 
either  planted  with  a one-horse  grain  drill  which  runs  between  the 
rows  of  corn  or  it  is  sown  broadcast  from  the  back  of  a horse.  A 
one-horse  disk  grain  drill,  which  can  be  used  for  this  purpose,  is 
shown  in  figure  5.  If  the  latter  method  is  used,  a hood  is  placed  over 
the  head  of  the  horse  to  keep  the  grain  from  falling  into  the  animaFs 


14  farmers'  bulletin  599. 

ears.  If  sown  broadcast,  the  last  cultivation  of  the  corn  covers  the 
seed. 

If  vetch  and  wheat  or  oats  are  sown  in  corn  when  ‘daid  by”  in 
July,  the  pasture  is  ready  for  use  by  October  1 ; if  sown  on  spring- 
plowed  stubble  land  in  the  early  fall,  it  is  ready  about  November  1. 
The  pasture  may  be  used  during  the  winter  and  early  spring.  If 
other  pasture  is  not  available,  these  crops  will  also  furnish  excellent 
forage  for  hogs  until  late  in  June.  Vetch  is  also  sown  alone  in  the 
fall  and  used  during  April,  May,  and  June. 

English  rye-grass. — Owing  to  the  excessive  winter  precipitation 
west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  the  ground  is  frequently  so  wet  that 
the  tramping  of  stock  is  very  injurious  to  most  soils.  For  this  rea- 
son a grass  pasture  with  a close,  tough  sod  is  very  desirable  for  win- 
ter use.  English  rye-grass  meets  this  need  admirably.  This  grass 
forms  a close  sod  that  stands  tramping  well.  It  is  one  of  the  first 
grasses  to  begin  growth  in  the  spring  and  one  of  the  last  to  cease 
growing  in  the  fall.  A rye-grass  pasture  maybe  used  from  the  early 
autumn  until  the  following  July.  During  the  summer  drought,  growth 
practically  ceases.  If  kept  grazed  rather  closely,  the  pasture  will  last 
for  years. 

A permanent  English  rye-grass  pasture  may  be  started  by  sowing 
from  10  to  15  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  with  oats  or  wheat  in  the  early 
spring  or  fall.  The  grain  crop  is  either  thrashed  or  cut  for  hay.  The 
grass  is  then  ready  for  grazing  the  following  autumn  after  being 
sown.  A permanent  pasture  may  be  started  also  by  sowing  the  grass 
seed  with  vetch,  oats,  or  wheat  on  stubble  land  in  the  early  fall.  The 
mixture  of  grass,  vetch,  and  grain  is  used  for  pasture  the  following 
winter  and  spring.  The  second  year  the  pasture  is  a close  grass  sod 
that  will  stand  grazing  when  the  ground  is  wet. 

Winter  wheat. — Winter  wheat  sown  in  the  early  fall  for  a grain 
crop  furnishes  excellent  pasture  for  hogs  during  February,  March, 
and  April. 

GRAIN  CROPS  TO  HOG  OFF. 


Table  II. — Crops  to  hog  off  in  western  Oregon  and  western  Washington. 


Crops. 

When  planted. 

Approximate  date  when  used. 

Beardless  barley 

Early  spring 

July  1 to  July  20. 

July  10  to  August  10. 

July  25  to  October  1. 

September  15  to  November  15. 

Winter  wheat 

September  and  October 

Field  peas 

Early  spring 

Com 

April  20  to  May  10 

Wheat. — Hogs  make  rapid  and  economical  gains  on  wheat  until 
the  chaff  becomes  thoroughly  dry.  If  they  are  then  supplied  with 
green  feed,  they  wiU  do  much  better.  If  peas  are  not  available  for 
hogging  off  during  August  and  September,  wheat  may  be  used  until 
the  autumn  rains  begin.  Spring  wheat  may  also  be  grown  to  take 
the  place  of  the  peas. 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS. 


15 


Beardless  barley. — If  no  winter  wheat  is  available  to  hog  off,  its 
place  may  be  filled  with  beardless  barley.  In  fact  this  crop  may  take 
the  place  of  corn  and  peas  as  well,  being  used  from  the  time  it  is  in 
the  stiff-dough  stage,  about  July  10,  until  winter  rains  come.  Hogs 
do  exceptionally  well  on  it  after  the  rains  have  softened  the  kernels. 

Peas. — To  furnish  autumn  pasture,  one-half  peck  of  wheat  or  a 
peck  of  oats  is  frequently  sown  with  peas  that  are  to  be  hogged  off. 
In  working  upon  the  mature  crop  the  hogs  cause  considerable  of  the 
oats  or  wheat  to  shatter  out.  Much  of  this  is  covered  by  the  tramp- 
ing of  the  hogs.  Wlien  the  first  fall  rains  come  it  germinates  and  fur- 
nishes good  pasture. 

Corn. — Corn  is  hogged  down  to  good  advantage  in  much  of  the 
territory  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  for  about  six  weeks — that  is, 
from  the  time  the  kernels  are  pretty  well  glazed  and  dented  until 
late  in  the  fall.  After  the  rainy  season  is  well  begun,  the  hogs  get 
many  of  the  ears  down  on  the  wet  ground.  This  causes  the  corn  to 
mold  and  spoil.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  best  to  undertake  to  hog  off 
too  late  in  the  season.  In  the  Willamette  Valley  corn  reaches  the 
hogging-off  stage  about  September  15.  In  the  Rogue  River  Valley 
it  is  earlier  and  in  northwestern  Washington  much  later  than  in  the 
Willamette  Valley. 

SUCCULENT  WINTER  FEEDS. 


Table  III. — Succulent  winter  feeds  for  western  Oregon  and  western  Washington. 


Crops. 

When  planted. 

When  used. 

Kale 

Planted  in  March  or  April;  trans- 
planted in  June. 

May  25 

October  1 to  April  1. 

November  1 to  January  16. 
November  1 to  April  1. 

Do. 

Squash 

Roots 

April  1 to  May  15 

Artichokes 

Early  spring 

Thousand-headed  hale. — Thousand-headed  kale  is  an  excellent 
succulent  whiter  feed  for  hogs.  The  mild  whiters  of  western  Oregon 
and  western  Washington  permit  kale  to  stand  in  the  field  all  winter. 
It  is  cut  and  fed  as  needed.  Unless  fed  hi  a rack  or  on  a clean  floor, 
pigs  waste  a great  deal  of  the  kale  by  tramping  it  hi  the  mud.  Full 
directions  for  growing  kale  will  be  found  hi  Farmers’  Bulletin  271  of 
this  department. 

Squashes. — In  order  to  raise  squashes  successfully  the  land  is  manured 
heavily  durhig  the  fall  or  whiter,  plowed  about  March  1,  allowed  to 
lie  for  five  or  six  weeks,  and  then  disked,  harrowed,  and  clod  mashed 
until  hi  good  condition.  From  May  1 to  15  it  is  replowed.  Just 
before  the  seed  is  planted,  about  May  25,  the  sod.  is  again  cultivated. 

The  squashes  are  gathered  about  November  1,  stored  in  a dark 
place  hi  the  barn,  and  covered  with  straw  to  keep  them  from  freezing. 
They  keep  better  if  gathered  before  the  surface  of  the  squashes  has  been 
frozen.  They  are  fed  from  approximately  November  1 to  January  15. 


16 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  599. 


Boot  crops.-  The  mangel-wurzels,  haK-sugar  beet,  sugar  beet,  and 
white  French  sugar  beet  are  all  used  for  hog  feed.  Beets  may  be 
stored  either  hi  pits  or  in  bins  in  the  barn,  or  fed  from  the  field.  Occa- 
sionally there  is  some  loss  from  freezing  if  left  hi  the  field  all  whiter. 
Usually,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  much  to  be  gained  by  feeding 
from  the  field,  because  (1)  beets  make  considerable  growth  during 
the  late  fall  and  whiter,  much  of  which  is  lost  if  they  are  stored;  (2) 
when  fed  from  the  field  the  tops  are  utilized  the  same  as  the  roots; 
and  (3)  it  is  much  cheaper  to  feed  from  the  field  than  to  store  them 
first  and  feed  them  later.  Beets  are  fed  whole. 

Articholces. — Artichokes  are  planted  in  rows  and  cultivated  hi 
precisely  the  same  manner  that  potatoes  are  grown.  The  tubers  are 
cut  into  rather  small  pieces  and  planted  a little  thicker  and  a little 
earlier  than  potatoes. 

Artichokes  are  utilized  by  turning  the  hogs  into  the  field  hi  the  fall 
after  the  tubers  have  made  their  growth.  If  the  hogs  have  been 
ringed,  the  ground  is  loosened  up  with  a plow,  enough  tubers  being 
plowed  out  at  a time  to  last  a week. 

The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of  artichokes  for  hogs  is  the 
sandy  land  along  the  watercourses.  They  can  be  hogged  off  on  such 
land  without  seriously  injurhig  the  soil  during  the  entire  winter.  The 
heavier  soils  are  frequently  badly  puddled  by  the  tramping  of  the 
hogs  durhig  wet  weather.  This  can  be  counteracted  by  liberally 
applying  coarse  fresh  manure  or  straw"  just  before  the  hogs  are  turned 
into  the  field  in  the  fall.  By  manuring  heavily  and  workhig  the 
ground  early  in  the  spring,  artichokes  may  be  grown  on  the  same 
land  for  several  years.  They  are  sometimes  allowed  to  volunteer, 
the  land  bemg  plowed,  worked  down,  and  the  crop  permitted  to  come 
from  the  tubers  left  hi  the  soil.  This  is  not  good  practice,  however, 
it  bemg  much  more  profitable  to  plant  them  m rows,  so  that  they  can 
be  cultivated.  A crop  of  artichokes  that  is  ready  for  the  hogs  is 
shown  hi  figure  6. 

Objection  is  sometimes  made  to  artichokes  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  getting  rid  of  them  when  it  is  desirable  to  grow  some  other 
crop  on  the  land.  They  may  be  eradicated  by  sowing  the  land  to 
clover,  clover  and  rape,  or  clover  and  oats,  and  pasturing  with  sheep 
or  cattle  during  the  summer.  If  no  stems  and  leaves  are  allowed 
to  grow,  no  tubers  will  form.  Close  pasturing  for  one  season  wdll 
ehminate  artichokes. 

CROPS  FOR  THE  WHEAT  BELT. 

The  wheat  belt  of  eastern  Oregon,  eastern  Washington,  and  north- 
ern Idaho  presents  a great  variety  of  agricultural  conditions.  The 
elevation  above  sea  level  varies  from  1,000  to  as  much  as  3,000  feet. 
The  annual  precipitation  also  varies  from  approximately  10  inches 
to  25  inches.  In  some  of  the  more  arid  districts  where  the  altitude 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS. 


17 


is  low,  the  soil  is  frequently  so  light  that  it  is  subject  to  blowing  and 
drifting.  In  the  districts  where  the  precipitation  is  heaviest,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  soil  is  a dark,  fertile,  silt  loam.  Owing  to  these  varia- 
tions crop  production  varies  widely  in  the  wheat  belt.  For  conven- 
ience in  discussing  the  cropping  and  feeding  systems  wliich  may  be 
used  for  hogs,  the  wheat  belt  is  divided  into  (1)  the  subhumid  or 
moister  districts  and  (2)  the  arid  and  semiarid  districts.  There  is 
no  distinct  line  of  demarcation  between  them,  for  they  gradually  blend 
into  one  another. 


Fig.  6.— Afieldofartichokesin theWillamette Valley, Oreg.,thatisreadyforthehogs.  When  the  lower 
leaves  began  to  die,  sheep  were  turned  in.  They  stripped  off  the  leaves  as  high  as  they  could  reach. 
Cattle  would  consume  the  rest  of  the  leaves. 

Subhumid  or  Moister  Districts. 

The  more  humid  portions  of  the  wheat  belt  are  generally  situated 
near  the  mountains.  The  annual  rainfall  is  usually  sufficient  to 
grow  alfalfa  successfully  without  irrigation. 

USE  OF  VARIOUS  PASTURE  CROPS. 

Table  IV. — Pasture  crops  for  the  subhumid  districts. 


Crops. 


When  planted. 


Approximate  dates  when  used. 


Number 
of  hogs  an 
acre  will 
pasture. 


Winter  wheat 


Early  in  September 


Clover 

Alfalfa 

Kale  or  rape 

Rape  and  clover. 
Winter  wheat.. 
Wheat  in  corn.. 

Stubble  field 


April,  previous  year 

A previous  year 

April  and  May 

May  1 

Early  in  May 

July  15  to  20  (at  last  cultiva- 
tion of  corn). 


October  15  to  November  15, 
March  15  to  Junel. 

April  10  to  December  1 

April  15  to  November  15 

June  15  to  December  1 

July  10  to  November  15 

June  1 to  November  15 

September  15  to  November  15. 


5 to  8 

8 to  15 
8 to  15 
8 to  15 
6 to  14 
G to  15 
6 to  12 


August  25  to  April  1 


18 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  599. 


Winter  wheat. — Many  farmers  use  the  main  win  ter- wheat  field  for 
hog  pasture.  If  the  autumn  rains  begin  early  enough  in  the  fall 
to  do  the  seeding  during  the  first  part  of  September,  wheat  usually 
makes  sufficient  growth  to  furnish  pasture  from  October  15  until 
the  ground  is  so  wet  that  it  is  injured  by  the  tramping  of  the  hogs. 
If  sown  during  September,  winter  wheat  also  makes  very  early 
spring  pasture.  It  is  used  from  the  time  the  ground  is  settled  until 
the  grain  begins  to  head,  or  until  the  hogs  begin  to  chew  the  heads. 
Ordinarily  this  will  be  from  March  15  until  June  1. 

Excellent  summer  and  autumn  pasture  is  provided  by  sowing 
winter  wheat  early  in  May  on  a well-prepared  seed  bed.  If  not 
pastured  very  closely  during  the  autumn,  wheat  that  is  sown  during 
May  can  be  used  during  much  of  the  winter. 

If  sown  just  before  the  last  cultivation  in  corn  that  has  been  well 
cultivated,  wheat  generally  furnishes  an  abundance  of  green  feed 
during  the  autumn  when  corn  is  being  hogged  off. 

Clover  and  alfalfa. — Red  clover  is  adapted  to  the  wheat-growing 
districts  having  a claylike  subsoil  and  the  maximum  precipitation. 
While  alfalfa  is  adapted  to  the  same  territory  it  has  a much  wider 
range  of  usefuhiess,  for  it  succeeds  with  less  rainfall  and  on  lighter 
soils  than  clover.  Clover  begins  to  grow  earlier  in  the  spring  and 
continues  to  grow  later  in  the  fall  than  alfalfa.  The  young  tender 
growth  of  clover  is  not  so  easily  injured  by  severe  frosts  as  that  of 
alfalfa.  Red  clover  fits  nicely  into  short  rotations  because  it  is  short 
lived  and  so  easily  killed  by  plowing.  Where  the  land  is  to  be  used 
continuously  for  hog  pasture  for  a number  of  years  alfalfa  easily 
stands  first. 

The  carrying  capacity  of  both  clover  and  alfalfa  is  greatly  reduced 
by  the  summer  drought,  and  it  is  usually  necessary  to  provide  addi- 
tional feed  during  this  time. 

The  essentials  in  successfully  growing  both  of  these  crops  are  given 
in  detail  in  Popular  Bulletin  31  and  Bulletin  80  of  the  Washington 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Pullman,  Wash. 

Kale  and  rape. — Thousand-headed  kale  and  Dwarf  Essex  rape 
are  very  closely  related.  The  mature  individual  kale  plants  are 
generally  larger  than  those  of  rape.  In  the  more  humid  portions 
of  the  wheat  belt  of  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  Washington  few  crops  are 
more  satisfactory  for  pasture  during  the  summer  and  autumn  than 
kale  and  rape.  The  green  aphis  sometimes  attacks  both  of  these 
crops  during  the  last  of  August.  WJiile  kale  is  seldom  injured  very 
much,  rape  is  frequently  damaged  considerably.  For  this  reason 
kale  is  the  preferable  crop.  A field  of  kale  is  shown  in  figure  7. 

To  grow  either  rape  or  kale  successfully  the  land  to  be  planted 
receives  an  application  of  stable  manure  and  is  plowed  during  the 
late  fall.  As  soon  as  the  surface  soil  is  dry  enough  in  the  spring, 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS. 


19 


it  is  thoroughly  cultivated  to  destroy  weeds,  germinate  weed  seeds, 
and  conserve  moisture.  For  early  summer  use,  say  the  middle  of 
June,  the  seed  is  planted  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  has  warmed 
up  well.  If  the  crop  is  not  to  be  used  until  July  15,  the  date  of 
planting  may  be  delayed  until  about  May  1 . Seeding  at  that  date 
gives  an  opportunity  to  cultivate  the  ground  several  times  before 
the  seed  is  planted.  This  makes  it  much  easier  to  keep  the  crop 
free  from  weeds. 

While  kale  and  rape  may  be  sown  broadcast,  the  best  results  are 
secured  by  planting  in  rows  about  32  inches  apart.  Kale  is  thinned 
until  the  plants  stand  12  to  14  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Rape  can 
be  left  a little  thicker  in  the  row. 


Fig.  7.— Thousand-’headed  kale  on  the  college  farm,  Pullman,  Wash. , planted  in  drill  rows  28  inches  apart. 

(Photographed  August  23,  1909.) 


By  pasturing  and  cultivating  two  or  three  times,  the  crop  may  be 
kept  green  all  summer.  After  the  fall  rains  come  both  rape  and  kale 
make  a much  better  growth  than  clover  or  alfalfa.  They  stand  a 
great  deal  of  severe  frost  and  can  generally  be  used  until  about 
December  15.  If  used  only  during  the  late  summer  and  autumn, 
better  results  are  secured  by  cutting  and  feeding  kale  instead  of 
turning  the  hogs  into  the  field.  When  the  plants  are  allowed  to 
become  large,  the  hogs  break  down  and  waste  many  of  the  leaves. 

Rape  and  clover. — Summer  pasture  is  provided  and  a stand  of  clover 
established  at  the  same  time  by  sowing  3 pounds  of  rape  seed  and  8 
to  10  pounds  of  red-clover  seed  per  acre  about  May  1.  The  seed  is 
mixed  and  sown  together  according  to  the  methods  described  for 
sowing  clover  in  Popular  Bulletin  31  of  the  Washington  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.  If  sown  May  1,  the  rape  and  clover  should  be 


20 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  599. 


large  enough  to  pasture  by  July  1 to  10.  Rape  makes  excellent 
green  forage  while  wheat,  peas,  and  corn  are  being  hogged  off. 

Gleaning  stubble  fields. — Wheat  farmers  who  raise  hogs  give  them 
the  run  of  the  stubble  fields  from  the  time  the  grain  is  harvested  until 
the  land  is  plowed  the  following  spring.  They  feed  upon  the  heads 
that  are  dropped  in  harvesting  and  also  on  the  volunteer  grain. 

It  is  frequently  supposed  that  the  combined  harvester  and  thrasher 
will  leave  so  little  grain  in  the  field,  especially  on  level  ground,  that 
there  is  nothing  to  be  gained  by  gleaning  the  stubble  with  hogs.  It 
is  also  supposed  that  in  gleaning  a large  stubble  field  hogs  will  do  so 
much  traveling  that  they  make  no  gains.  To  show  that  neither  of 
these  assumptions  is  well  founded,  the  experience  of  W.  H.  Steen, 
Umatilla  County,  Oreg.,  in  gleaning  the  stubble  field  with  hogs  may 
be  cited. 

On  August  24,  1910,  90  head  of  hogs,  weighing  6,261  pounds,  were 
turned  into  178  acres  of  wheat  stubble.  They  were  in  the  field  with- 
out other  feed  until  November  1,  when  they  weighed  8,350 pounds. 
The  gain  in  live  weight  per  acre  was  11.73  pounds.  The  value  of 
the  gain  per  acre  (11.73  pounds)  at  6,  7,  and  8 cents  per  pound 
amounts  to  70.4,  82.1,  and  93.8  cents,  respectively.  The  stubble 
land  gleaned  by  the  hogs  is  comparatively  level,  and  a good  job  had 
been  done  in  cutting  the  grain  with  a combined  harvester.  On  steep 
land  the  waste  in  harvesting  is  always  much  greater  than  on  level 
land,  and  the  gain  in  gleaning  the  stubble  with  hogs  should  be  cor- 
respondingly greater. 

GRAIN  CROPS  TO  HOG  OFF. 

Table  V. — Crops  to  hoq  off  in  the  subhumid  district. 


Crop*. 

When  planted. 

Approximate  dates  when  used.i 

Beardless  barley 

Winter  wheat 

Early  spring 

September  and  October 

■Tuly  5 to  August  1. 

July  20  to  August  20. 

July  10  to  November  1. 

August  1 to  September  1. 
September  1 to  November  15. 

From  beginning  of  autumn  rains 

Field  peas 

Early  spring 

Spring  wheat 

do 

Com 

May  1 to  20 

Blue  barley  or  common  beardless 

Early  spring 

barley. 

to  midwinter. 

‘ Because  of  the  great  variation  in  altitude  in  the  more  humid  portions  of  the  wheat  belt,  there  is  a corre- 
sponding variation  in  the  dates  at  which  crops  mature.  Barley,  wheat,  and  peas,  for  example,  reach  the 
hogging-off  stage  much  earlier  when  grown  at  low  altitudes  than  at  high  altitudes.  For  this  reason  the 
dates  in  the  above  table  for  using  the  crops  are  only  approximately  correct. 


A discussion  of  the  use  of  the  crops  mentioned  in  Table  V will  be 
found  on  pages  6 to  9 of  this  bulletin.  The  growing  of  wheat  and 
barley  is  familiar  to  all  and  needs  no  further  comment.  The  growing 
of  field  peas  and  corn  are  discussed  in  Popular  Bulletins  Nos.  36  and  38, 
and  Bulletin  99  of  the  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
These  bulletins  may  be  had  by  applying  to  the  Director  of  the 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Pullman,  Wash. 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS. 


21 


WINTER  FEEDS. 


Table  VT. — Winter  feeds  for  the  subhumid  distriets. 


Crops. 

When  planted. 

Approximate  dates  when  used. 

Alfalfa  hay 

A previous  year 

November  1 to  April  15. 

Do. 

October  15  to  May  1. 

Late  fall, winter,  and  early  spring. 
Do. 

Do. 

Roots 

April  and  May 

Artichokes 

April 

Bundle  or  headed  wheat 

Field  peas  (unthrashed) 

Bundle  or  headed  barley 

Fall  or  spring 

Early  spring 

Fall  or  early  spring 

Alfalfa  hay. — Alfalfa  hay  is  probably  the  most  satisfactory  winter 
roughage  that  may  be  provided  for  hogs  in  the  subhumid  wheat  dis- 
tricts. If  intended  for  hogs,  it  is  cut  green  a little  before  the  appear- 
ance of  the  first  blossoms.  It  is  also  best  to  take  it  from  a portion  of 
the  field  where  the  stand  is  thick.  The  hay  will  then  be  fine,  palatable 
and  rich  in  protein. 


Fig.  8.— Rack  for  feeding  hay  to  hogs. 

Alfalfa  hay  is  usually  fed  in  one  of  two  ways,  whole  or  cut.  Whole 
hay  is  generally  fed  in  racks.  Figures  8 and  9 show  racks  used  for 
feeding  hay  to  hogs.  Hay  is  also  fed  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
By  either  of  these  methods  there  is  considerable  waste,  especially  if 
the  hay  is  coarse.  One  of  the  most  popular  and  satisfactory  ways 
of  feeding  alfalfa  hay  to  hogs  is  to  run  it  through  a hay  cutter,  chop- 
ping it  into  lengths  of  about  one-half  inch.  The  hay  is  then  mixed 
with  chopped  or  rolled  wheat  or  barley.  The  mixture  is  moistened 
with  all  of  the  water  that  it  will  absorb,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  12 
hours  before  it  is  fed.  Some  soak  the  hay  and  add  the  grain  just 
before  feeding.  During  very  cold  weather  the  hay  may  be  wet  with 
hot  water  and  fed  immediately.  Where  it  is  not  necessary  to  hasten 
the  growth  of  the  hogs  alfalfa  hay  may  form  one-half  of  the  ration 
by  weight.  Where  a rapid  gain  is  desired  a ration  consisting  of  one- 
fourth  alfalfa  hay  and  three-fourths  grain  is  more  satisfactory. 

Root  crops. — The  sugar  beet,  the  white  French  sugar  beet,  man- 
gels, carrots,  and  rutabagas  are  all  used  for  fall  and  winter  hog  feed. 


22 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  599. 


The  success  of  root  crops  largely  depends  upon  the  preparation  of  the 
seed  bed.  In  growing  sugar  beets  in  the  vicinity  of  Waverly,  Wash., 
the  following  has  been  found  a very  satisfactory  way  of  preparing 
land  for  this  crop.  Stubble  land  is  disked  or  plowed  shallow  in  the 
autumn.  As  soon  as  in  condition  to  work  in  the  early  spring  it  is 
plowed  7 or  8 inches  deep  and  then  harrowed,  planked,  and  rolled 
again  and  again  until  a firm,  mellow  seed  bed  is  formed.  The  time 
of  planting  depends  on  the  season.  In  localities  whose  altitude  is 
from  2,000  to  2,500  feet,  root  crops  are  usually  planted  the  last  of 
April  or  early  in  May.  For  winter  use  roots  are  stored  either  in 
cellars  or  pits.  Roots  are  generally  fed  in  connection  with  a grain 
ration.  The  hogs  usually  receive  all  of  the  roots  that  they  will  clean 
up  and  sufficient  grain  to  make  them  thriye  and  grow  as  desired. 


Fig.  9.— An  easily  and  cheaply  constructed  rack  for  feeding  hay  to  hogs.  The  sides  consist  of  ordinary 
hog-fencing  wire  stapled  on  a frame. 


Artichokes. — On  rich,  mellow  land  that  retains  moisture  well  arti- 
chokes usually  yield  better  than  potatoes.  But  on  land  that  dries* 
out  quickly  the  yield  is  not  very  satisfactory.  The  methods  given 
on  page  16  of  this  bulletin  for  growing  artichokes  will  apply  in  the 
main  for  this  district  also. 

The  hogs  are  turned  in  late  in  the  fall,  about  the  time  that  alfalfa 
or  clover  pasture  is  failing.  Some  allow  the  hogs  to  work  on  the 
tubers  at  will  from  the  last  of  October  until  May  1.  Others  prefer 
to  use  artichokes  only  in  the  late  fall  and  early  spring,  the  hogs  being 
removed  from  the  field  during  the  winter,  when  the  ground  is  so  wet 
that  their  rooting  will  puddle  the  soil.  The  hogs  are  returned  to  the 
field  as  soon  as  the  ground  has  settled  in  the  early  spring.  Used  in 
this  way  artichokes  fill  in  two  periods,  the  late  fall  and  early  spring, 
when  green  feed  is  scarce.  As  with  the  root  crops,  hogs  must  also 
receive  a grain  ration  of  some  kind  when  feeding  upon  artichokes  if 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS. 


23 


rapid  gains  are  desired.  When  the  ground  is  frozen  hard  other  feed 
must  be  provided. 

TJntlirashed  wheat. — Many  hog  raisers  use  headed  or  bundle  wheat 
to  carry  dry  brood  sows  and  young  shotes  through  the  winter.  When 
feeding  upon  the  unthrashed  grain  the  hogs  get  considerable  rough- 
age  in  chewing  the  heads.  They  are  also  compelled  to  eat  more  slowly 
and  to  masticate  their  food  better  than  when  feeding  upon  thrashed 
grain.  Wlien  the  grain  is  fed  in  the  straw  the  thrashing  bill  is  saved 
and  the  hogs  are  kept  busy  during  much  of  the  time.  Unthrashed 
wheat  and  artichokes  or  roots  of  some  kind  make  a good  combination 
for  wintering  hogs. 

Field  peas. — In  some  locahties  field  peas  are  stacked  and  the 
unthrashed  vines  fed  to  hogs  during  the  late  fall,  winter,  and  early 
spring.  Mature  pea  grain  is  a concentrated  feed,  very  rich  in  pro- 
tein. For  this  reason  hogs  should  receive  other  feed  in  addition  to 
the  peas  to  dilute  the  ration.  Any  of  the  root  crops,  artichokes,  or 
potatoes  are  excellent  for  this  purpose. 

Unthrashed  harley. — In  using  unthrashed  bearded  barley  for  winter 
feed  for  hogs,  a large  quantity  is  thrown  into  the  feed  lot  at  a time  in 
order  that  the  beards  and  kernels  may  become  wet  and  soften.  If 
fed  dry,  the  kernels  are  too  hard  to  be  eaten  readily. 

Arid  and  Semiarid  Districts.  ' 

The  arid  and  semiarid  districts  may  arbitrarily  be  designated  as 
• that  portion  of  the  wheat  belt  whose  normal  precipitation  is  insuffi- 
cient to  grow  alfalfa  successfully.  In  much  of  this  region,  however, 
alfalfa  can  be  grown  profitably  for  hog  pasture  by  keeping  the  stand 
very  thin  and  cultivating  it  thoroughly  in  the  late  fall  and  early 
sprmg.  If  sown  rather  thmly  m rows  about  24  to  36  inches  apart 
and  cultivated  occasionally  during  the  spring  and  summer,  alfalfa  will 
make  profitable  hog  pasture  over  a very  wdde  territory  now  consid- 
ered too  dry  for  that  crop.  The  crops  mentioned  in  Table  VII  will 
provide  pasture  during  much  of  the  year  in  the  dry  region. 

PASTURE  CROPS. 


Table  VII. — Pasture  crops  for  the  arid  and  semiarid  districts. 


Crops. 

When  planted. 

Approximate  date  when  used. 

Number 
of  hogs 
an  acre 
will 

pasture. 

W inter  wheat 

October. 

April  1 to  May  15 

6 to  10 
5 to  10 
5 to  10 
5 to  8 

4 to  7 

Beardless  barley 

February  or  March 

May  1 to  June  15 

Sprinp' whp.n.t  ■* 

May  1 f.n  July  1 

Winter  wheat  or  beardless 
barley. 

Field  corn  and  Early  Amber 
sorghum. 

Stubble  field 

May ' 

■'V  . ■ r ' * 

April  10  to  May  10 

June  15  to  August  1-25 

July  until  autumn  frosts 

August  25  to  April  15 

24 


farmers’  bulletin  599. 


Wheat. — Wheat  is  used  for  hog  pasture  as  follows: 

(1)  As  soon  as  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  dry  in  the  spring,  about  April  1,  the 
hogs  are  turned  into  the  main  crop  of  winter  wheat  that  is  grown  for  market.  Some 
prefer  to  use  the  winter  wheat  until  it  begins  to  joint;  that  is,  for  about  a month  or  six 
weeks.  Others  use  it  until  the  hogs  begin  to  chew  the  heads  of  wheat,  and  still  others 
harvest  with  the  hogs  in  the  field. 

(2)  Spring  wheat  sown  the  last  of  February  or  early  in  March  is  generally  large 
enough  for  pasture,  3 to  4 inches  high,  by  May  1.  By  pasturing  it  rather  closely  it 
will  stay  green  until  about  July  1. 

(3)  Summer  pasture  is  provided  by  sowing  either  spring  or  winter  wheat  about  May 
1.  Land  that  is  sown  at  this  date  is  plowed  during  the  late  fall,  in  the  winter,  or 
very  early  in  the  spring.  To  destroy  weeds  and  retain  moisture  it  is  kept  thoroughly 
cultivated  from  early  spring  until  the  wheat  is  sown.  The  pasture  is  ready  for  use  in 
about  six  weeks  from  date  of  planting.  If  grazed  closely,  it  should  remain  green  until 
in  August. 

Barley. — The  common  beardless  barley  is  also  sown  in  the  early 
spring  and  early  in  May  for  spring  and  summer  pasture.  Barley 
comes  more  quickly  and  makes  more  feed  than  wheat.  The  hogs 
also  like  it  better  than  wheat  up  to  the  time  it  has  headed  olit. 

Corn  and  sorghum. — Field  corn  and  several  varieties  of  sorghum 
are  grown  in  a limited  way  in  the  dry  portion  of  the  wheat  belt  for 
hog  pasture.  The  principal  varieties  of  sorghum  are  kafir,  Jerhsalem 
corn,  milo,  and  Amber  sorghum.  Just  which  of  these  is  most  satis- 
factory when  grown  as  a grazing  crop  or  to  cut  and  feed  green  has  not 
been  fully  determined.  On  account  of  the  siicculency  and  high  sugar 
content  of  its  stems  as  well  as  its  habit  of  suckering  after  being  cut  or 
eaten  down.  Amber  sorghum  is  probably  the  best  of  the  varieties 
named  above.  The  variety  grown  is  locally  known  as  Early  Amber 
sorghum.  Field  observations  seem  to  indicate  that  Amber  sorghum 
is  best  adapted  to  the  extremely  dry  districts  where  the  altitude  is 
rather  low,  and  corn  to  the  higher  districts.  These  crops  need  to  be 
further  tested  in  limited  areas  to  determine  which  are  most  profitable. 

Corn  and  sorghum  are  grown  in  much  the  same  way.  To  be  suc- 
cessful, the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  must  receive  special  atten- 
tion. Perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  way  to  prepare  the  land  for 
these  crops  is  to  plow  during  the  late  fall  or  winter  and  then  cultivate 
thoroughly  from  early  spring  until  planting  time.  Sorghum  is 
planted  a trifle  later  than  corn,  in  rows  3 to  3i  feet  apart  with  a grain 
drill.  The  seed  is  dropped  10  to  15  inches  apart  in  the  row.  To 
firm  the  soil  and  cause  the  seed  to  germinate  quickly,  a corrugated 
roller  or  subsurface  packer  is  run  just  behind  the  drill.  The  cultiva- 
tion is  the  same  as  that  of  com.  The  crop  is  either  cut  and  fed  green 
or  the  hogs  are  turned  into  the  field  when  the  sorghum  or  corn  is 
14  to  18  inches  high.  The  former  method  gives  by  far  the  most  feed. 

Corn  and  sorghum  are  generally  used  in  a 2-year  rotation  with 
wheat  or  barley,  the  land  being  in  sorghum  or  corn  for  summer  green 
feed  one  year  and  in  barley  or  wheat  to  pasture  or  hog  off  the  next. 


PASTURE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS. 


25 


Gleaning  stubhle  fields . — If  the  farm  is  fenced  hog  tight,  the  hogs 
have  the  run  of  the  stubble  field  from  the  time  the  grain  is  harvested 
until  the  land  is  plowed  the  following  spring.  The  volunteer  grain 
makes  the  earliest  green  feed  in  the  spring. 

GRAIN  CROPS  TO  HOG  OFF. 


Table  VIII. — Crops  to  hog  off  in  the  arid  and  semiarid  districts. 


Crops. 

When  planted. 

Approximate  dates  when  used.i 

Beardless  barley 

Early  spring 

Jime  20  until  autumn  rains  begin. 

July  1 to  opening  of  stubble  field  or 
until  autumn  rains  begin. 

July  15  to  opening  of  stubble  field  or 
until  autumn  rains  begin. 

July  20  until  autumn  rains  begin. 

From  beginning  of  autumn  rains  to 
late  winter — October  15  to  Feb- 
ruary 10. 

W i n ter  wh  eat . 

October 

Spring  wheat 

Early  spring,  February  and 
March. 

do 

Field  peas  . 

Blue  barley  or  the  common  beard- 
less barley. 

do 

1 The  altitude  of  the  arid  and  semiarid  districts  varies  from  1,000  to  3,000  feet.  For  this  reason  the  dates 
.at  which  the  crops  in  the  above  table  mature  will  vary  considerably.  The  dates  given  for  the  use  of  these 
crops,  therefore,  are  only  approximations. 


Whether  or  not  wheat  and  peas  shall  be  used  from  the  time  they 
are  available  in  the  early  summer  until  the  autumn  rains  have 
softened  the  barley  sufficiently  to  be  hogged  down  will  depend  upon  the 
number  of  hogs  kept  on  the  farm.  Where  only  enough  hogs  are  kept 
to  glean  the  stubble  field,  peas  and  wheat  are  used  only  until  the 
grain  is  thrashed  and  the  stubble  field  is  open.  Where  more  than 
enough  hogs  are  kept  to  clean  up  the  stubble  field,  wheat  and  peas 
can  be  profitably  hogged  off  until  the  barley  is  in  condition  to  use. 

Somewhat  limited  observations  indicate  that  field  peas  in  the  dry 
parts  of  the  wheat  belt  seldom  have  nodules  on  their  roots.  The 
yield  also  is  usually  light.  The  lack  of  nodules,  the  light  yields,  and 
the  high  price  of  seed  make  the  production  of  peas  questionable. 
It  is  probable  that  they  may  be  grown  profitably  in  rows  as  a culti- 
vated crop.  At  the  experimental  farm  at  Moro,  Oreg.,  peas  are  planted 
in  double  rows  7 inches  apart  with  35-inch  spaces  between  the  double 
rows.  The  peas  are  planted  in  this  way  with  a grain  drill  by  stop- 
ping up  a part  of  the  feed  cups.  The  peas  support  each  other  and 
stand  up  better  when  planted  in  this  way.  They  are  cultivated  with 
a spike-tooth  harrow  until  about  4 or  5 inches  high.  They  then 
receive  shallow  cultivation  between  the  rows  until  the  vines  lop  over. 

WINTER  FEEDS. 

The  feeds  that  may  be  used  economically  to  carry  hogs  through  the 
winter  are  standing  barley  and  headed  wheat.  Field  peas  may  also 
be  stacked  and  fed  without  thrashing. 

CROPS  FOR  THE  IRRIGATED  VALLEYS. 

Much  of  the  irrigated  land  along  the  Columbia  River,  on  the  one 
extreme,  is  less  than  400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Some  of  the 
irrigated  mountain  valleys,  on  the  other  hand,  have  an  elevation  of 


26 


farmers’  bulletin  599. 


3,500  to  4,000  feet.  At  the  low  altitudes  pasture  is  available  much 
earlier  in  the  spring  and  later  in  the  autumn  than  at  the  higher  altitudes. 
In  the  mountain  valleys  all  of  the  grain  fed  is  raised,  while  in  the  lower 
districts  most  of  the  grain  consumed  is  purchased  from  the  near-hy 
wheat  farms.  In  the  lower  districts  corn  is  successfully  grown.  In 
the  higher  valleys  corn  has  not  proved  a success. 

PASTURE  CROPS. 

Table  IX. — Pasture  crops  in  the  irrigated  valleys. 


Crops. 

When  planted. 

Approximate  dates  when  used. 

Number 
of  hogs  an 
acre  will 
carry. 

Red  clover 

Previous  year. 

March  to  November  10 

10  to  20 
10  to  20 

10  to  20 

Do 

Early  spring  with  wheat,  oats, 
or  barley. 

Previous  year 

After  grain  is  harvested  to 
November  10. 

April  1 to  to  November  1 

Alfalfa 

Alfalfa  is  most  generally  used  for  hog  pasture  under  irrigation. 
There  are  many  who  prefer  clover,  however,  especially  in  the  moun- 
tain valleys,  because  it  starts  growth  earlier  in  spring  and  is  less  in- 
jured by  fall  frost  than  alfalfa.  The  two  crops  are  sometimes  grown 
together.  It  is  claimed  that  a mixture  of  the  two  will  carry  nearly 
one-third  more  hogs  per  acre  than  either  grown  alone. 

In  the  mountain  valleys  where  the  cereals  are  important  crops, 
clover  fits  into  the  rotations  better  than  alfalfa.  In  the  Powder  Kiver 
Valley,  Oreg.,  red  clover  is  grown  in  a 2-year  rotation  with  wheat,  oats, 
or  barley.  The  clover  is  sown  in  the  early  spring  and  after  the  grain 
is  harvested  makes  excellent  pasture  until  winter.  The  following 
June  a crop  of  hay  is  cut.  About  the  middle  of  July,  when  the  second 
crop  is  about  10  inches  high,  the  clover  is  plowed  under  and  the  ground 
worked  down  immediately.  The  following  spring  the  land  is  again 
sown  to  clover  and  wheat,  oats,  or  barley.  Where  there  is  plenty  of 
water  for  irrigation  throughout  the  season,  the  clover  sod  is  not 
plowed  under  until  during  the  autumn. 

WINTER  FEEDS. 

Table  X. — Winter  feeds  in  the  irrigated  valleys. 


Crops. 

When  planted. 

When  used. 

Alfalfa  hay 

A previous  year 

November  1 to  April  15. 

Do. 

Late  fall,  winter,  and  early  spring. 
Do. 

November  1 to  April  15. 

Root  crops 

April  and  May 

Bundle  or  headed  wheat 

Field  peas 

Fall  or  spring 

Early  spring 

Artichokes  i 

April  (same  as  potatoes) 

1 Artichokes  are  best  adapted  to  the  lower  irrigated  districts,  where  the  winters  are  open  enough  to  permit 
the  hogs  to  work  on  the  tubers.  They  are  used  from  the  time  that  alfalfa  pasture  fails  in  the  autumn  until 
it  is  available  again  in  the  spring.  Even  in  the  lower  valleys  there  are  times  during  the  winter  when  the 
ground  is  frozen  too  hard  for  the  hogs  to  root  out  the  tubers.  Alfalfa  hay,  roots,  or  other  feed  must  then 
take  the  place  of  the  artichokes. 


A discussion  of  the  use  of  these  crops  will  be  found  under  Winter 
feeds,”  pages  21  to  23. 


PASTUEE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS  FOR  HOGS. 


27 


CROPS  TO  HOG  OFF, 


Table  XI. — Crops  to  hog  off  in  the  irrigated  valleys. 


Crops. 

When  planted. 

Approximate  dates  when  used.* 

Beardless  barley 

Club  wheat 

Early  spring,  April 

September  or  October 

August  1 to  November  15. 

August  5 to  September  15. 
August  20  to  November  15. 
August  20  to  October  1. 

Field  peas 

Early  spring,  April 

Club  wheat 

do 

1 The  dates  for  using  the  crops  in  the  table  above  are  applicable  to  localities  whose  altitudes  range  from 
3,000  to  4,500  feet.  At  lower  altitudes  these  crops  are  ready  for  use  much  earlier. 


The  hogging  off  of  crops  under  irrigated  and  nonirrigated  condi- 
tions is  so  similar  that  the  discussion  of  the  use  of  these  crops  on 
pages  5 to  10  and  14  and  15  of  this  bulletin  will  be  found  applicable 
in  the  irrigated  districts. 

SUMMARY. 

During  recent  years  the  hog  industry  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  has 
been  inadequate  to  supply  the  local  demands  for  pork  and  pork 
products.  This  has  caused  the  average  price  of  pork  to  be  relatively 
high  and  has  made  it  necessary  to  ship  a large  percentage  of  the  hogs 
slaughtered  and  bacon  consumed  from  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

It  is  possible  to  provide  pasture  for  hogs  in  most  of  this  region 
throughout  much  of  the  year.  In  most  localities  it  is  also  possible  to 
provide  crops  that  may  be  hogged  off  during  several  months  of  the 
busy  season.  The  crops  generally  used  for  this  purpose  are  wheat, 
field  peas,  corn,  and  barley.  By  supplementing  well-managed  pas- 
ture with  the  proper  grain  rations  and  utilizing  the  ability  of  the  hog 
to  harvest  grain  crops  for  himself,  the  average  cost  of  producing  pork 
may  be  materially  reduced.  These  conditions  offer  an  opportunity 
for  profitable  pork  production  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  on  a much 
larger  scale  than  at  present  practiced. 


o 


WASHINGTON  : GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  : 1914 


;:ij  M rifii  . *'  ' 

'"./"ti< •-'•■  e' ' 'ir^nT 


M;.  U’T-J  'rV; 


.-^jBiB' '7, : V ■'.. ..t^j  ■;■#  • ■ r. *,'‘i^ 

,..  .P*^'  ■■I 


^ )iL,  . - 

* ff'* « {'*  *•' '.v ‘‘ 

Mk.g  ^ «M: 


< 

.jr 


tru  ^ T"  ^ 

us. DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Wm.  A.  Taylor,  Chief. 
July  II,  1914. 


\N  OUTFIT  FOR  BORING  TAPROOTED  STUMPS  FOR 

BLASTING. 

I^y  Harry  Thompson, 

Agriculturist,  Office  of  Farm  Managenietif . 

INTRODUCTION. 

In  using  explosives  to  blast  stumps  from  the  ground  in  order  to 
»repare  it  for  farming,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  place  the  charge 
nder  a stump  having 
semitaproot  or  a lat- 
ral  system  of  rooting 
y boring  or  digging  a 
ole  in  the  earth  to  a 
»oint  under  the  center 
-f  resistance  and  deep 
■no ugh  to  give  the  de- 
ared  effect.  ^ 

PLACING  THE  CHARGE. 

When  clearing  land 
here  most  of  the 
• tumps  are  taprooted, 
as  in  the  longleaf-pine 
regions  of  the  South, 
it  has  been  found,  im- 
practicable to  place 
the  charge  in  the  earth 
outside  of  the  stump, 
as  this  practice,  because  of  the  small  size  of  the  lateral  roots,  usually 
results  in  blowing  the  dirt  away  from  one  side  and  only  cracking  and 
slightly  loosening  the  stump. 


Fig.  1.— Diagram  showing  a section  of  a taprooted  stump  and  a 
charge  in  position  for  lilasting. 


iFor  methods  of  using  powder  in  blasting  stumps,  see  page  14  of  “t'ost  and  methods  of  clearing  land  in 
western  Washington,”  by  Harry  Thompson  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry 
Bulletin  239,  CO  p.,  25  fig.,  1912. 

Note. — This  paper  gives  detailed  information  concerning  a power  outfit  for  boring  taprooted  stumps 
for  blasting.  In  those  sections  of  the  country  where  such  slumps  are  abundant  it  will  be  of  value  in  reducing 
the  cost  of  clearing  land  for  agricultural  purposes, 

4541C°— Bull.  600—14 


2 


FARMERS^  BULLETIN  600. 


To  get  the  best  results  when  blasting  tliese  stumps,  tlie  charge  must 
be  placed  within  the  taproot.  To  do  this,  a hole  of  sufFicient  size  and 
deep  enougli  to  place  the  explosive  at  the  center  must  be  bored  into 
the  stump.  The  hole  should  be  bored  so  deep  tliat  the  center  of  the 
charge  will  be  at  or  near  the  center  of  the  taproot.  (Fig.  1.) 

The  hole  should  be  started  into  the  stump  from  6 to  10  inches  below 
the  surface  and  should  slant  downward  at  an  angle  of  about  45°. 
When  stumps  are  blasted  in  this  manner  most  of  tliem  will  be  broken 
off  below  the  plow  line.  (Fig.  2.) 


Fig.  2.— Result  of  blasting  a longleaf-pine  stump  by  placing  a charge  within  the  stump. 


Boring  these  holes  by  hand  with  a l|-inch  or  1^-inch  auger  is 
heavy  work  and  in  some  cases  will  require  two  men  when  a ship 
auger  is  used. 

POWER  OUTFIT  FOR  BORING  STUMPS. 

Several  turpentine  companies  who  are  using  the  stumps  of  the 
longleaf  pine  for  distillation  purposes  have  assembled  outfits  for 
boring  these  holes  by  means  of  electric  drills,  with  power  supplied 
by  a dynamo  run  by  a gasoline  engine  and  mounted  upon  a wagon. 

The  outfit. — The  outfit  consists  of  the  following:  One  5-horsepower 
horizontal  gasoline  engine,  one  3-kilowatt  dynamo,  all  mounted  on 
skids  or  a wagon  and  drawn  by  a team  (fig.  3);  two  electric  drills 
using  H-inch  augers  of  the  required  length  (fig.  4),  together  with 
the  necessary  cables  for  connecting.  Augers  30  inches  in  length 
are  commonly  used,  although  it  is  often  desirable  to  drill  to  a greater 
depth.  For  this  purpose  a supply  of  augers  4 feet  in  length  is  kept  on 
hand.  The  longer  augers  break  more  frequently  than  the  shorter  ones. 


BORINc;  TAPROOTEL)  STUMPS  FOR  BLASTING. 


3 


The  crew. — It  requires  a crew  of  six  to  run  this  boring  machine, 
as  follows:  An  engineer  and  driver,  four  drill  men  (two  for  each  drill), 
and  a cable  man  or  boy. 

METHOD  OF  OPERATING. 

After  the  engine  and  dynamo  have  been  securely  mounted  upon 
skids  or  a wagon,  as  shown  in  figure  3,  the  outfit  is  taken  to  the 
stump  field,  the  engine  is  started  by  the  engineer,  and  the  drills 
are  supplied  with  current  from  the  dynamo.  Each  drill  is  operated 
by  two  men  and  can  be  used  on  opposite  sides  of  the  outfit  for  a 
distance  of  about  100  feet.  The  cable  boy  keeps  the  cables  from 


Fig.  3. — Outfit  for  boring  taprooted  stumps  for  blasting. 

fouling  on  the  stumps,  logs,  and  underbrush.  He  also  keeps  them 
from  kinking,  which  would  cause  the  copper  wires  to  break. 

When  the  hole  is  bored  to  the  desired  depth  (see  fig.  4),  the  drill  is 
removed  and  a handful  of  chips  put  upon  the  top  of  the  stump  to 
show  that  it  has  been  bored. 

An  outfit  of  this  sort  drilled  500  stumps  a day  on  an  average  during 
the  month  of  May,  1913.  The  average  cost  per  stump  for  fhe  holes 
drilled  was  slightly  less  than  3 cents.  This  cost  takes  into  account 
repairs,  depreciation,  and  interest,  as  well  as  operating  expenses. 

An  outfit  of  this  kind  could  be  utilized  for  boring  the  stumps  for 
burning  by  the  method  described  by  Ferris.^ 

Although  the  companies  operating  these  machines  do  not  usually 
attempt  to  blow  the  stumps  from  far  enough  below  the  ground  surface 
for  agricultural  purposes,  it  is  estimated  that  digging  away  the  soil 

1 Ferris,  E.  B.  Clearing  pine  lands.  Miss.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  159,  12  p.,  4 fig.,  1912. 


4 


FARMERS^  BULI.ETIN  (K)(). 


iioar  tho  stump  to  permit  ])oring  from  0 to  10  inches  below  th(5  surfaces 
will  not  cost  more  than  2 cents  per  stump. 

RESULTS  OBTAINED  IN  A TEST. 

In  a test  conducted  by  one  of  th('.  companies  operating  a boring 
outfit  similar  to  the  one  described,  the  dirt  was  thrown  away  from 
one  side  of  the  stump  to  a depth  of  12  inches  and  the  hole  boreal 
into  the  stump  at  least  10  inches  below  the  surface.  Of  the  100  stumps 
so  blasted,  97  were  broken  off  bedow  plow  depth.  The  roots  of  the 
remaining  3 stumps  were  easily  cut  out  low  enough  to  permit  cultiva- 
tion. Slightly  less  powder  was  used  upon  these  stumps  than  where 


Fig,  4.— Boring  a longleaf-pine  stump  with  an  electric  drill.  A 30-inch  hole  has  just  been  completed. 


the  holes  were  bored  at  tho  surface  of  the  ground.  The  total  aver- 
age cost  for  digging,  boring,  and  blasting  was  22  cents  per  stump. 
This  cost  does  not  include  the  disposal  of  the  stumps,  as  the  tops 
and  roots  were  used  for  distillation  purposes. 

Average  cost  per  stump  for  digging,  boring,  and  blasting. 


Digging  hole $0,020 

Doring  stump ' 030 

Cap  and  fuse 025 

Powder  (using  an  average  charge) ' 145 


Total 220 


BOEING  TAPROOTED  STUMPS  FOR  BLASTING. 


r 

GRADE  OF  POWDER  TO  USE. 

It  has  been  found  by  tliose  engaged  in  blasting  the  taprooted 
stumps  that  the  lower  grades  of  nitroglycerin  powders  are  most 
economical.  The  higlier  grades  have  more  of  a disruptive  effect, 
tending  to  shatter  the  stump,  but  tliey  do  not  throw  it  out  of  tlie 
ground  as  well  as  the  lower  grades  of  powder.  There  is  very  little 
difference  in  the  effect  secured  by  using  20  per  cent  and  25  per  cent 
powder.  The  20  per  cent  powder  is  clieaper  and  is  generally  con- 
sidered the  most  suitable  for  stump-blasting  purposes. 

COST  OF  THE  OUTFIT. 

The  following  prices  for  an  electric  stump-boring  outfit  are  f.  o.  b. 
distribution  point,  and  freight  cliarges  should  be  added  to  the  place 
wliere  used. 

Necessary  eqiiijnnertt  for  haring  stumps,  V'ith  cost. 


5-horsepower  gasoline  engine $115 

3-kilowatt  dynamo 185 

2 electric  drills 80 

6 augers,  assorted  lengths 25 

200  feet  of  cable 20 

Skids ■ 10 

Tools 25 


Total 400 


CONCLUSION. 

By  using  one  or  more  electric  boring  outfits  it  is  possible  in  a very 
sliort  time  to  bore  a large  number  of  stumps  for  burning  or  blasting. 
The  number  of  longleaf-pine  stumps  per  acre  tliat  liad  to  be  bored 
in  the  tests  varied  from  20  to  70.  As  an  average  of  about  500  stumps 
a day  can  be  bored,  from  10  to  20  acres  can  be  covered  in  one  day,  the 
maximum  number  of  borings  being  possible  where  the  stumps  are 
thickest. 

Tlie  cost  of  clearing  land  with  this  outfit  and  the  use  of  nitrogycerin 
powder  will  range  from  $5  to  $18  per  acre,  provided  the  wood  from 
tlie  stumps  and  roots  can  be  sold  for  enough  to  pay  for  tlieir  disposal. 


o 


UNlVEKSITr  OF  • 

AUG  3 1 1916 


INDEX. 


Farmers’ 


Agricultural  Outlook ^ 

Agriculture,  study,  collection  and  preservation  of  plant  material 

used,  bulletin  by  H,  B.  Derr  and  C H.  Lane 

Alabama,  grasses,  natural  and  others  suitable  for  beef  production. . . 
Alfalfa — 

hay  crop  for  South,  note 

hay,  value  for  fattening  calves 

hog  pasture,  value 


Andrews,  Frank- 


Argentina- 


corn  production — 

acreage,  importance,  etc 

exports,  quality,  etc 

prices,  etc 

exports,  meat  animals  and  packing-house  products 

Arizona,  Salt  River  Valley,  growing  Egyptian  cotton,  bulletin 

Arsenate  of  lead — 

application  to  tobacco  plants,  directions,  dosage,  strength,  etc. . 
application  to  tobacco  plants,  effects  of  different  methods,  seasons. 


Artichokes— 

eradication 

growing  for  hogging  off,  management,  value,  etc. 


Bark  disease,  chestnut,  extent  and  spread,  preventive  measures. 
Barley — 

beardless — 


crop,  world’s,  acreage,  production,  1911-1913,  by  countries.  . 

hogging  off,  management 

importance  of  crop,  international  trade,  uses,  etc 

seed,  preparation  for  spring  planting 


Barnes,  Will  C.,  bulletin  on  “Stock-watering  places  on  western 
grazing  lands” 

Beef- 


production,  Southern,  bulletin  by  W.  F.  Ward  and  Dan  T.  Gray. 
96735—15 2 


1 No. 

Page . 

580 

17-18 

[581 

1-50 

l584 

1-22 

590 

1-20 

l598 

1-21 

586 

1-24 

580 

2 

580 

4 

580  ■ 

8 

599 

12,  18,  26 

578 

5 

593 

8-14 

581 

6-9 

581 

17-18 

590 

3-7 

581 

30-40 

581 

31-34 

581 

2,  5,  6-12 

581 

9-12 

581 

6-12 

581 

35-38 

577 

1-8 

595 

5-6 

595 

3-5 

595 

5-6 

595 

1-8 

595 

2-3 

599 

16-17 

599 

16 

599 

22-23 

588 

16-17 

577 

8 

582 

1 

599 

24 

599 

15 

581 

18-21 

599 

8-9 

581 

18-19 

584 

7 

584 

2, 15 

599 

23 

592 

1-27 

581 

30-31 

581 

30-40 

580 

1-20 

2 


FARMERS^  BULLETINS,  NOS.  576-GOO. 


Beef  cattle — 


Bees — 

colonies,  outlook,  etc.,  May  1,  1913,  1914 

destruction  by  skunks 

number  of  colonies,  condition  and  outlook.  May  1, 1914. 

Beet  pulp,  use  for  silage,  note 

Beet  sugar.  See  Sugar,  beet. 


Farmers’ 


Bermuda  grass- 


Blasting — 

stump,  placing  the  charge,  importance, 
taprooted  stump,  outfit  for  boring 


Brick  and  stone  silo,  note. 
“Brown  hay,”  cause.  . . . 
Bulls— 


California  crops — 

condition,  April  1,  1914 

condition.  May  1,  1912, 1913, 1914. 
Calves — 

buying  and  raising  for  feeders,  sug 
cost  of  raising — 


demand  for  veal,  effect  on  prices  of  stocker  and  feeder  cattle. 

fattening  in  South,  discussion,  experiments,  etc 

Canada,  oats — 


Capital,  farm,  nature,  use,  acquirement,  etc . 


Carver,  T.  N,  bulletin  on  “How  to  use  farm  credit”. 
Cattle — 


buying  and  selling  methods,  importance  to  cattle  raisers,  sug 


fattening- 


feeder- 


feeding- 


cost,  methods,  etc.,  changes. 


in  No. 

Page. 

. 580 

15-20 

. 578 

19-23 

598 

17 

587 

9 

598 

8-9 

578 

5 

598 

9-11 

591 

16 

. 577 

2 

580 

4 

. 600 

1-2 

. 600 

1-5 

. 585 

1 

. 591 

16 

- 578 

20 

- 587 

18-19 

. 589 

•4 

- 579 

5 

. 588 

3-4 

. 678 

16-17 

. 590 

10  * 

. 598 

14 

. 588 

16 

. 588 

3-5 

. 580 

6 

. 588 

5 

. 580 

6-8 

. 581 

14, 15 

. 581 

18 

. 591 

16 

. 578 

5 

. 593 

1-2 

. 584 

6-7 

. 593 

1-14 

. 581 

32 

- 579 

7 

. 580 

15-20 

. 588 

5-6 

. 588 

3-5 

. 588 

15 

. 580 

13-14 

. 580 

14 

. 588 

2-3 

. 588 

2-3 

. 588 

1-2 

. 588 

7-10 

. 588 

1-2 

, 588 

1-19 

. 588 

9-10 

INDEX. 


3 


Cattle — Continued . 

feeding — Continued, 
on  high-priced  la 

tjilage 

finishing  for  market. . 
losses,  1913 


Farmers’ 


raising, 
range,  < 


South, 


tick,  eradication,  work  of  Government. 


wintering  for  summer  fattening  on  pasture,  cost,  management, 

etc.,  experiments 

Cattle-feeding  States,  advance  in  prices  of  feeds,  labor,  land,  etc 

Cattlemen,  buying  and  selling  cattle,  study  of  market,  etc.,  sug- 
gestions  

Cellar,  incubator,  requireme.nts 

Cement — 

preparation,  formula 


Chalazae,  function  in  eggs 

Chestnut — 

bark  disease,  nature,  extent,  preventive  measures,  etc . 
timber,  killed  by  bark  diseases — 

characteristics,  manufacture,  etc 


uses. 


trees — 


Cheviot  sheep — 

breeders’  association,  address  of  secretary 

description,  points  of  value,  etc 

Cliickens,  raising,  hatching  eggs,  natural  and  artificial  methods,  bul- 
letin by  Harry  M.  Lamon 

Cholera,  hog,  epidemics,  1886-1913,  losses,  etc 

Clearing  land,  outfit  for  boring  taprooted  stumps  for  blasting,. . 

Clover  and  rape,  hog  pasture,  management 

Clover — 


rotation  crop  with  wheat,  corn,  and  oats,  treatment,  yield,  etc., 

experiments 

use  for  silage,  value,  time  for  harvesting,  etc 

Clover,  crimson — 

seeding  late  and  early  varieties,  advantages 

utilization,  bulletin  by  J.  M.  Westgate 

See  also  Crimson  clover. 

Coastal  region,  grasses,  natural  and  others  suitable  for  beef  produc- 
tion  

Cobb,  N.  A.,  cotton  grading  investigations,  note 

Concrete — 


silo — 

advantages,  construction,  cost,  etc... 
construction,  directions,  illustrations. 


etc. 


in  No. 

Page. 

588 

12-13 

578  14- 

-17,  19-23 

580 

6-9 

590 

7 

. 588 

6 

588 

14 

580 

5-6 

592 

4 

588 

8 

, 588 

19 

578 

20 

580 

14 

592 

2-3 

/580 

8-9 

1588 

14-15 

’ 580 

12-13 

, 588 

1-2 

. 588 

5-6 

. 585 

9 

. 592 

26-27 

. 592 

19 

. 589 

20-21 

. 585 

1 

. 582 

1-2 

, 582 

6 

582 

3 

, 582 

24 

, 582 

1-24 

. 582 

7-23 

582 

2 

582 

4-6 

576 

10 

576 

9 

585 

1-16 

590 

2 

600 

1-5 

599 

19-20 

599 

12, 18 

599 

18 

596 

4,5 

578 

5 

579 

1 

579 

1-10 

580 

2 

591 

7 

589 

24-25 

589 

20-24 

589 

2,3 

589 

9-30 

, 582 

18-20 

4 


FARMERS^  BULLETINS^  FTOS.  576-600. 


Corn- 


Farmers’ 


crop- 


failure  in  Western  States,  effect  on  consumption  of  wheat 


rotation  crop  with  wheat,  oats,  and  clover,  treatment,  yield, 
etc.,  experiments 


Corn,  Argentine- 


Cotswold  sheep- 


Cotton- 


colonial- 


Egyptian — 


grade — 


names, 


grades — 


United  States  official,  establishment,  personnel  of  commit- 
tee, authority,  etc 

grading — 


growers,  knowledge  of  cotton  grades,  acquirement,  usefulness, 
etc 


1 No. 

Page. 

588 

1-19 

578 

4 

581 

5-6 

598 

4 

581 

1-6 

581 

1-6 

581 

2 

580 

4 

581 

8-9 

578 

4 

589 

1 

579 

9 

578 

4-7 

599 

8 

581 

6 

599 

24 

581 

7-8 

596 

4,5 

584 

4-5 

584 

1-2, 13 

580 

11-12 

578 

2-4 

599 

15 

581 

11-12 

581 

9-12 

581 

10 

581 

11 

580 

8 

576 

11 

576 

10-11 

598 

13 

591 

1-23 

581 

40^2 

581 

40-42 

591 

5-6 

577 

1 

577 

8 

577 

1-8 

591 

11-12 

591 

13-16 

591 

2 

591 

9 

591 

3-7 

591 

11-12 

591 

7-9 

591 

9-10 

591 

8 

591 

1-2 

591 

7 

591 

1-2 

591 

1 

INDEX. 


5 


Cotton — Continued.  Farmers’ 

growing — Bulletin  No.  Page. 

advantages  for  weed-infested  land,  Salt  River  Valley 577  2 

Salt  River  Valley,  importance  of  early  cultivation  and  irri- 
gation  577  4-5 

Salt  River  Valley,  selection  and  preparation  of  land 577  1-4 

half  grades,  European  and  American  standards,  comparison 591  10-12 

impurities  present,  influence  on  grade 591  3-4 

picking — 

Arizona,  labor  supply,  daily  average,  wages,  etc 577  8 

separating  grades,  wages,  etc..  Salt  River  Valley 577  7-8 

production,  world’s,  1870-1913,  by  countries 581  43 

sampling  for  grading,  directions 591  7 

standards,  European  and  American,  comparison 591  10-12 

thinning 577  5-6 

values  of  different  grades,  relative 591  16-18 

Cotton,  J.  S.,  and  W.  F.  Ward,  bulletin  on  “Economical  cattle 

feeding  in  the  corn  belt” 588  1-19 

Cottonseed — 

cake,  feed  for  fattening  steers  on  summer  pasture 580  13-14 

hulls — 

feed  for  fattening  cattle,  experiments 580  10 

feed  for  fattening  steers,  comparison  with  corn  stover, 

sorghum,  and  Johnson-grass  hay 580  11-12 

value  for  fattening  cattle 580  8,  9 

meal — 

feed  for  fattening  cattle,  experiments 580  10 

feed  for  cattle,  value 580  4 

value  for  fattening  cattle 580  8,  9 

Cover  crop — 

use  of  wheat,  note 596  6 

value  of  crimson  clover 579  10 

Cowpeas — 

hay  crop  for  South,  note 580  4 

use  for  silage,  note 578  5 

Cows,  dairy,  feeding  silage,  advantages 578  2 

Crab  grass,  hay  crop  for  South,  note 580  4 

Credit — 

conditions,  improvement  by  farmers,  suggestions 593  7 

farm — 

amortization  tables 593  8-14 

objections 593  2-3 

use,  proper  and  improper,  bulletin  by  T.  N.  Carver 593  1-14 

Crimson  clover — 

danger  to  horses  and  mules  from  hair  balls 599  2,  5 

fertilizing  value,  comparison  with  barnyard  manure  and  other 

fertilizers 579  8,  9 

hah’  balls,  danger  to  horses  and  mules 579  2,  5 

hay,  cutting,  harvesting,  etc 579  2-5 

hay,  feeding  value,  comparison  with  other  feeds,  experiments. . 579  5 

pasture,  advantages,  management,  etc 579  6-7 

utilization,  bulletin  by  J.  M.  Westgate 579  1-10 

value  as  cover  crop 579  10 

value  as  green  manure,  management,  etc 579  7-9 

value  for  hay  and  forage 580  4 

Crop- 

estimates — 

sources  of  information,  several  countries 581  48-50 

systems  of  foreign  countries 581  43-50 

production,  value  per  acre,  1866-1913 584  11,21-22 

reporting  systems,  foreign  countries,  sources  of  information,  etc.  581  43-50 

statistics,  foreign  countries,  reporting  systems  and  sources  of 

information 581  43-50 

Crops — 

condition  reports,  basis 598  13-14 

hogging  off,  advantages,  management,  etc 599  5-10 

spring-sown,  plowing  and  planting,  condition.  May  1,  1914 598  7 

world’s  (barley,  rye,  potato,  flax),  article 581  18-30 


6 


FARMERS^  BULLETINS,  NOS.  576-600. 


Farmers’ 

Crossties — Bulletin  No.  Page. 

chestnut,  durability,  requirements,  demand,  etc 582  16-18 

dead  chestnut,  value,  etc 582  3 

Oucurza,  name  for  corn  in  Servia,  importance,  note 581  3,  5 

Curing,  crimson  clover  hay,  effect  of  rain,  etc 579  2-5 

Dairy  cows,  silage  as  feed,  rations,  etc 578  14-15, 17 

Dark-tobacco  districts,  destruction  of  hornworms  by  means  of  arse- 
nate of  lead,  bulletin  by  A.  C.  Morgan  and  D.  C.  Parman.  595  1-8 

Daugherty,  Charles  M. — 

article  on  “Other  world  crops” 581  18-30 

article  on  “The  world  corn  crop” 581  1-6 

paper  on  “ Crop -reporting  systems  and  sources  of  crop  information 

in  foreign  countries  ” 581  43-50 

Dean,  W.  S.,  and  D.  E.  Earle,  bulletin  on  “The  classification  and 

grading  of  cotton  ” 591  1-23 

Delaine  Merino  sheep,  description,  points  of  value,  etc 576  14 

Derr,  H.  B.,  and  C.  H.  Lane,  bulletin  on  “Collection  and  preserva- 
tion of  plant  material  for  use  in  the  study  of  agriculture  ” . . 586  1-24 

Devon  cattle,  characteristics,  adaptability  to  South,  etc 580  19-20 

Diplumbic.  See  Arsenate  of  lead. 

Dorset  Horn  sheep — 

breeders’ association,  address  of  secretary ^ 576  9 

description,  points  of  value,  etc 576  8-9 

Drag — 

construction  for  cotton  planting,  directions  and  value 577  4 

road,  and  how  used,  bulletin 597  1-15 

road,  purposes 597  2 

split-log,  construction  and  management 597  2-5 

Drags,  road — 

construction  from  sawed  lumber 597  5 

two  types,  construction,  illustrations,  etc 597  2-7 

Dry-land  farming,  increase,  effect  on  supply  of  feeder  cattle 588  2 

Duck  eggs,  incubation  period 585  3 

Durham  cattle,  polled,  origin,  characteristics,  etc 580  16 

Duvel,  W.  J.  T.,  article  on  “Argentine  corn” 581  9-12 

Earle,  D.  E.,  and  W.  S.  Dean,  bulletin  on  “The  classification  and 

grading  of  cotton  ” 591  1-23 

Eastern  United  States,  winter-wheat  culture,  bulletin 596  1-12 

Egg— 

composition 585  1 

structure,  study 585  1 

containers  for  mailing,  construction,  illustrations,  etc 594  5 

hatching — 

care,  selection,  and  packing 585  1-3 

in  incubator,  moisture  and  ventilation  requirements,  sug- 
gestions   585  12-14 

natural  and  artificial,  bulletin  by  Harry  M.  Lamon 585  1-16 

mailing — 

equipment,  wrapping,  cost,  etc 594  9-11 

for  hatching,  care 594  9 

postal  requirements 594  5-6 

marketing  by  mail,  contract  between  parties,  suggestions 594  13-14 

packing  for  shipment,  directions 585  2-3 

preservatioQ  in  water  glass,  directions 594  4 

selection,  care,  and  handling,  for  shipment  by  parcel  post 594  2-4 

shipment  by  parcel  post,  bulletin  by  Lewis  B.  Flohr 594  1-20 

shipment  by  parcel  post,  experiments 594  2 

shipping,  methods  of  packing 585  3 

testing,  directions 585  14-15 

weight 594  9 

Egyptian  cotton — 

growing  in  Salt  River  Valley,  Ariz 577  1-8 

See  also  Cotton,  Egyptian. 


INDEX. 


7 


Farmers’ 

Bulletin  No.  Page. 

Elevator,  silage,  types 578  8 

English  rye-grass,  hog  pasture,  value,  management 599  14 

Europe,  corn  cultivation,  production,  area,  etc 581  2-3,5- 

Ewes — 

cross-bred,  imperfections  as  lamb  producers 57()  16 

feeding  silage 578  24 

Explosives,  use  in  clearing  laud,  bulletin  by  Harry  Thompson 600  1-5 

Farm — 

animals,  numbers,  monthly  variation 590  8-9 

credit — 

amortization  tables 593  8-14 

objections 593  2-3 

use,  bulletin  by  T.  N.  Carver 593  1-14 

labor — 

hours  required,  different  sections,  detailed  statement,  etc. . 584  9-10, 19 

wages,  different  sections,  increase,  detailed  statements,  etc.  584  7-9, 16-19 

products — 

price  trend 584  10-11 

price  trend,  April  1, 1914 590  12-20 

prices  to  producers.  May  1,  1913, 1914 598  18-20 

prices,  trend.  May  1,  1914 598  7-8 

yield  per  acre,  condition  June  1,  1914 598  21 

sheep  raising,  breeds  suitable 576  10-16 

Farming,  systems  to  maintain  soil  fertility,  remarks 588  12 

Fattening — 

cattle,  use  of  silage 578  21 

steers,  management,  cost,  etc 580  13-14 

Feed— 

crimson-clover  hay,  value 579  5 

dry,  for  cattle 588  15 

silage — 

composition  of  different  kinds 578  13-14 

making  and  feeding,  bulletin  by  T.  E.  Woodward 578  1-24 

succulent — 

importance  in  ration 578  14 

winter,  for  hogs.  Pacific  Northwest 599  15-16 

Feeder  cattle,  decline  in  supply 588  2-3 

Feeding — 

calves,  for  market 580  6-8 

cattle — 

cost  in  corn  belt,  determination,  etc 588  7-10 

for  market 580  6-9 

in  corn  belt,  economical,  bulletin 588  1-19 

margins 588  9 

lots,  paved,  advantages 588  9-10 

skunk 587  18 

Feeds — 

advance  in  prices  in  cattle-feeding  States 588  1-2 

production  in  various  regions  of  South 580  3-4 

winter,  for  hogs 599  15-16, 

21-25,26 

winter,  for  hogs  in  irrigated  districts 599  26 

Fence  posts,  chestnut,  advantages,  utilization  of  dead  timber,  value.  582  21 

Fertilizers,  use  in  wheat  gro\\dng,  suggestions,  experiments,  etc 596  3-5 

Flax — 

crop,  world’s,  acreage  and  production,  1910-1912,  by  countries..  581  26-30 

production,  historical  notes 581  26-27 

seeding  for  fiber  and  for  seed 581  26 

straw,  utilization 581  26-27 

Flaxseed — 

preparation  for  spring  planting 581  7 

production,  industry  of  several  countries,  notes 581  26-27 


8 


FAKMEES^  BULLETINS^  NOS.  570-000. 


Fleece- 


Farmers’ 


Florida  crops — 

condition,  April  1,  1914 

condition,  May  1,  1912,  1913,  1914 

Forage,  South,  crops  suitable  for  beef  production. 


Fungi,  specimens  for  study,  preparation  and  preservation. 
Fur — 

moleskins,  value,  London  market,  etc 

skunk,  handling 

Fur-bearing  animals—  ‘ 


Furs,  skunk- 


Grading  cotton — 


Grain — 

crops,  growing  for  hogging  off,  time  for  using,  etc. 
crops,  hog  pastures,  arid  land 


crops,  Pacific  Northwest,  for  hogs  (and  pasture  for  hogs),  bulle- 
tin   


Grains,  specimens  for  study  of  agriculture,  collection  and  preserva- 
tion  4 _ 

Granoturco,  name  for  corn  in  Italy,  production,  and  importance... 
Grasses — 


Gravel,  selection  for  concrete 

Gray,  Dan  T.,  and  W.  F.  Ward,  bulletin  on  “Beef  production  in 
i the  South” 


Hampshire  sheep- 
breeders’  asso 


1 No. 

Page. 

570 

11 

570 

9 

570 

13 

570 

7 

570 

12 

570 

11 

570 

8 

570 

16 

570 

12 

570 

5 

570 

4 

594 

1-20 

590 

10 

598 

14 

580 

3 

592 

2 

581 

45-47 

581 

8-9 

580 

21-24 

583 

10 

587 

20-22 

587 

1-2 

587 

1-2 

587 

14-15 

587 

14 

580 

18 

581 

23-24 

577 

8 

585 

3 

591 

1-23 

591 

9-10 

599 

14-15,  25 

599 

27 

599 

20 

599 

14-15 

599 

1-27 

584 

6-7 

584 

3-4, 12-15 

584 

1-2, 12-15 

586 

9-17 

581 

3,5 

580 

4 

580 

2 

589 

21 

580 

1-20 

592 

1-27 

581 

47-48 

579 

7-9 

591 

13-16 

585 

3 

589 

3-4 

579 

2,5 

570 

7 

576 

6-7 

INDEX. 


9 


Farmers’ 

Bulletin  No.  Page. 


Hartley,  0.  P.,  article  on  “Preparing  seed  corn  for  planting” 584  4-5 

Harvesting — 

crimson-clover  hay v 579  2-5 

wheat,  cutting,  shocldng,  and  stacking 596  10-12 

Hatching  eggs,  packing  and  shipping 585  2-3 

. Hauling,  silage  corn  to  cutter,  management 578  6-7 

Hawaii,  sugar  campaigns,  1911-1913 598  12 

Hay- 

alfalfa,  value  for  hogs 599  21 

amount  fed  on  farms  where  grown,  1914,  by  States 598  16 

condition  and  outlook.  May  1,  1914 598  6 

conditions,  forecast,  stock  on  hand,  etc..  May  1,  1914 598  16 

crimson  clover,  spontaneous  combustion,  cause,  instance 579  4 

crops.  South 580  4 

Johnson  grass  for  fattening  steers,  comparison  with  cotton-seed 

hulls 580  12 

making,  crimson  clover 579  2-5 

Hen — 

eggs,  incubation  period 585  3 

setting,  directions,  suggestions,  etc 585  4-6 

Hens,  sitting,  care 585  4-7 

Herd — 

breeding,  feeding  silage 578  20 

grading  up  for  beef  production  in  South,  method 580  5-6 

Hereford  cattle,  characteristics,  adaptability  to  South,  etc 580  16-17 

Highways.  See  Roads. 

Hog  cholera.  See  Cholera,  hog. 

“Hogging  off”  crops,  advantages,  management,  etc 599  5-10 

Hogs — 

feeding,  crops  suitable  for  pasture  and  hogging  off.  Pacific  North- 
west  599  10-27 

following  cattle,  suggestions 588  17-19 

grain  ration  while  on  pasture,  advantages 599  3-5 

' losses,  1913 590  1-3 

pasture  and  grain  crops  in  Pacific  Northwest,  bulletin 599  1-27 

pasturing,  management 599  1-3 

winter  feeds 599  15-16, 

21-25,  26 

Holmes,  George  K. — 

article  on  “Argentine  beef  ” 581  30-40 

article  on  “ Colonial  cotton  ” 581  40-43 

Honey  plant,  crimson  clover,  note 579  1 

Honeybees.  See  Bees. 

Hoops,  stave  silo  construction,  requirements,  adjustment,  etc 589  38-40 

Hornworm,  tobacco,  destruction,  use  of  arsenate  of  lead,  dark-tobacco 

district,  bulletin  by  A.  C.  Morgan  and  D.  C.  Parman 595  1-8 

Horses — 

feeding  crimson  clover,  caution,  etc 579  2,  5 

feeding  silage 578  17-19 

losses,  1913 590  8 

water  requirements,  daily 592  2-3 

Hudson,  E.  W.,  bulletin  on  “Growing  Egyptian  cotton  in  the  Salt 

River  Valley,  Arizona” 577  1-8 

Hulls,  cotton-seed,  feed  for  fattening  cattle,  comparison  with  corn 

stover,  sorghum,  and  Johnson-grass  hay 580  11-12 

Hunter,  Byron,  bulletin  on  “Pasture  and  grain  crops  for  hogs  in  the 

Pacific  Northwest” 599  1-27 

Imports,  corn  from  Argentina,  by  months,  1913 581  6 

Incubation — 

eggs,  periods  for  different  species  of  poultry 585  3 

hens’  eggs,  natural  and  artificial,  bulletin  by  Harry  M.  Lamon. . 585  1-16 

Incubator — 

cellar,  requirements 585  9 

lamp,  care  and  management 585  11 

operation,  and  management,  directions 585  9-12 

selection,  considerations,  etc 585  8 

96735—15 3 


10 


FARMERS^  BULLETINS,  NOS.  576-600. 


Farmers’ 

Incubators — . Bulletin  No. 

disinfection  and  storage 585 

types,  descriptions 585 

Indians,  Arizona,  Papago  and  Pima  tribes,  relation  to  cotton  indus- 
try, remarks  577 

Insecticide,  arsenate  of  lead,  use  against  tobacco  hornworms  in  dark- 

tobacco  district,  bulletin 595 

Insects,  injurious,  destruction  by  skunks 587 

Interest  rates,  importance  in  farm  credit 593 

Irrigated  lands,  crops  for  hogs 599 

Italian  rye  grass,  value  for  coastal  regions 580 

Japanese  sugar  cane,  feed  for  cattle  in  South,  note 580 

Johnson  grass — 

eradication,  value  of  cotton  growing 577 

hay  crop  for  South,  note 580 

hay,  fattening  steers,  comparison  with  cottonseed  hulls 580 


Page. 

15 

7-8 

8 

1-8 
10-12 
3-4,  6-7 
25-27 
2 

4 


2 

4 

12 


Kafir,  value  for  forage  and  silage,  note 580  4 

Kale- 

hog  pasture,  value,  management 599  18-19 

thousand-headed,  winter  feed  for  hogs 599  15 

Labor,  farm — 

hours  required  in  different  sections,  detailed  statement,  etc 584  9-10, 19 

wages  in  different  sections,  increase,  etc 584  7-9, 16-19 

Lambs — 

feeding  silage 578  24 

“hot  house,”  production,  value  of  Dorset  Horn  ewes 576  9 

marketing,  cooperative,  note 576  2 

Lamon,  Harry  M.,  bulletin  on  “Natural  and  artificial  incubation  of 

hens’  eggs” 585  1-16 

Lamp,  incubator,  care  and  management 585  11 

Land,  clearing,  outfit  for  boring  taprooted  stumps  for  blasting 600  1-5 

Lane,  C.  H.,  and  H.  B.  Derr,  bulletin  on  “Collection  and  preserva- 
tion of  plant  material  for  use  in  the  study  of  agriculture  ” . . 586  1-24 

Lantz,  D.  E.,  bulletin  on  “Economic  value  of  North  American 

skunks” 587  1-22 

Lead  arsenate — 

use  against  tobacco  hornworms  in  dark-tobacco  district 595  1-8 

See  also  Arsenate  of  lead. 

Leicester  sheep — 

breeders’  association,  address  of  secretary 576  12 

description 576  12 

Leighty,  Clyde  E.,  bulletin  on  “The  culture  of  winter  wheat  in 

the  Eastern  United  States” 596  1-12 

Legumes,  use  for  silage,  value  and  objections 578  5 

Lespedeza,  hay  crop  for  South,  value 580  4 

Lichens,  specimens  for  study,  preparation,  and  preservation 586  24 

Lincoln  sheep — 

breeders’  association,  address  of  secretary 576  11 

description,  points  of  value,  etc 576  11 

Live  stock — 

losses,  1913 590  1-8 

numbers,  monthly  variation 590  8-9 

water  requirements,  daily,  for  various  animals 592  2-3 

watering,  advantages  of  warm  water 592  3 

western  grazing  lands,  watering  places,  bulletin 592  1-27 

Loans,  repayment,  duration,  rates  of  interest,  etc ' 593  5-7 

Louisiana,  sugar  crop,  1913 590  11-12 

Lumber,  chestnut,  uses,  grading  rul^,  yield  of  trees  of  different 

sizes,  etc 582  12-16 

Manure — 

barnyard,  care 588  10-12 

green,  value  of  crimson  clover 579  7-9 


INDEX. 


11 

Farmers’ 

Bulletin  No.  Page. 

Mares,  brood,  feeding  silage,  supplementary  feed,  etc 578  18, 19 

Marketing  farm  products,  use  of  parcel  post 594  1-2 

Marshall,  F.  R.,  bulletin  on  “Breeds  of  sheep  for  the  farm” 576  1-16 

Maynard,  C.  J.,  remarks  on  domestication  of  skunks 587  12 

Mealies,  name  for  corn  in  Africa,  production,  importance,  etc 581  4,  5 

Meat  animals,  losses,  1913 590  8 

Meat — 

demand,  increase,  effect  on  prices  of  stocker  and  feeder  cattle. . 588  5 

imports,  October,  1913-January,  1914 581  39 

Melilotus,  hay  crop  for  South,  note 580  4 

Merino  sheep — 

American,  description  of  different  types,  points  of  value,  etc..  576  13-15 

breeders’  associations,  addresses  of  secretaries 576  14-15 

Mexico,  corn  production,  acreage,  etc 581  2,  5 

Milho,  name  for  corn  in  Portugal,  production,  and  importance 581  3,  5 

Milo  maize,  value  for  forage  and  silage,  note 580  4 

Mine  timbers,  chestnut,  requirements,  remarks 582  22-23 

Mining  tunnels,  waste  water  of,  use  for  range  stock,  management. . . 592  20 

Minks,  destruction  of  poultry,  method 587  8 

Mississippi,  grasses,  natural  and  others  suitable  for  beef  production. . 580  2 

Mixing  board,  concrete,  requirements 589  23 

Molds,  silage,  cause,  preventive  measures,  danger  to  horses,  etc 578  17-18 

Mole — 

common,  breeding  habits 583  5 

common,  description,  habits,  damage  to  vegetation,  natural 

enemies,  checks,  bulletin 583  1-10 

common,  eastern  United  States,  bulletin 583  1-10 

eastern  United  States,  economic  status 583  9-10 

nests,  construction,  location 583  2-3 

. Moles — 

common,  description,  habits,  etc.,  bulletin 583  1-10 

damage  to  vegetation 583  6 

destruction,  methods 583  7-9 

food,  investigations 583  5-6 

runways,  location,  system 583  2-3 

species,  distribution 583  1-2 

Moleskins — 

London  market 583  10 

value 583  10 

Morgan,  A.  C.,  and  D.  C.  Parman,  bulletin  on  “Arsenate  of  lead 
as  an  insecticide  against  the  tobacco  hornworms  in  the 

dark-tobacco  district  ” 595  1-8 

Mosses,  specimens  for  study,  preparation  and  preservation 586  24 

Mules— 

feeding  crimson  clover,  caution,  etc 579  2-5 

feeding  silage,  danger  from  mold 578  17-18 

Nellis,  J.  C.,  bulletin  on  “Uses  for  chestnut  timber  killed  by  bark 

disease” 582  1-24 

Northwest — ■ 

hog  raising,  advantages 599  1 

Pacific,  pasture  and  grain  crops  for  hogs,  bulletin 599  1-27 

Oats — 

Canadian,  imports,  prices,  production,  etc 581  17-18 

crops,  acreage  and  production,  1911-1913,  by  countries 581  15-16 

production,  exports,  imports,  1906-1913 581  17-18 

rotation  crop  with  wheat,  corn,  and  clover,  treatment,  yield, 

etc.,  experiments 596  4,5 

seed  preparation  for  spring  planting 584  6 

stocks  on  farms.  Mar.  1,  1914,  comparison  with  1912,  1913 584  2, 14 

Oil,  skunk,  uses,  note 587  15 

Oklahoma,  pools,  construction,  cost,  advantages 592  22 

Orchards,  cover  crop,  crimson  clover 579  10 

Ostrich  eggs,  incubation  period 585  3 


12 


FAKMERS'  BULLETINS,  NOS.  576-600. 


Farmers’ 

Bulletin  No.  Page. 


Owls,  enemy  of  mole,  note 583  4-5 

Oxford  sheep — 

breeders’  association,  address  of  secretary 576  8 

description,  points  of  value,  etc 576  7-8 

Pacific  Northwest,  pasture  and  grain  crops  for  hogs,  bulletin 599  1-27 

Packing,  egg,  for  mailing 594  8-9 

Painting,  stave  silo  inside 589  43 

Parcel  post — 

means  of  marketing  farm  products,  discussion 594  1-2 

shipping  eggs  by,  bulletin  by  Lewis  B.  Flohr 594  1-20 

zones,  rates,  measurement  limits,  etc 594  14-18 

Paris  green,  use  on  tobacco  plants,  injuries 595  2 

Parks,  K.  E.,  Helmer  Rabild,  and  A.  K.  Risser,  bulletin  on 

'‘Homemade  silos” ^ 589  1-47 

Parman,  D.  C.,  and  A.  C.  Morgan,  bulletin  on  “Arsenate  of  lead 
as  an  insecticide  against  the  tobacco  hornworms  in  the 
dark-tobacco  district  ” 595  1-8 

■ Pasture — 

crop,  crimson  clover,  advantages 579  6-7 

crops  for  hogs,  growing  in  Pacific  Northwest 599  1-3, 

17-20,  24,  26 

lands,  South,  nature,  area,  etc 580  1 

Pacific  Northwest,  for  hogs  (and  grain  crops  for  hogs),  bulletin.  599  1-27 

Pastures — 

condition  and  outlook,  May  1,  1914 598  7 

condition.  May  1,  1914,  by  States 598  16 

hog,  management  in  Pacific  Northwest 599  1-3, 

17-30,  24,  26 

Pasturing,  wheat,  in  fail,  management,  caution 596  10 

Peafowl  eggs,  incubation  period 585  3 

Peas — 

field,  hogging  off,  management 599  7-8 

field,  unthrashed,  winter  feed  for  hogs,  value,  management. . . . 599  23 

sowing  with  wheat  or  oats  for  hogging  off,  advantages 599  15 

“Peelers,”  cotton,  application  of  term 591  16 

Pelts,  skunk,  grades,  effect  of  climate  on  pelage,  etc 587  2-5 

Pheasant  eggs,  incubation  period 585  3 

Phlegethontius  quinquemaculata.  See  Tobacco  hornworm. 

Piedmont  region,  grasses,  natural  and  others  suitable  for  beef  pro- 
duction  580  2 

Plant  material  for  study  of  agriculture,  collection  and  preservation, 

^ bulletin  by  H.  B.  Derr  and  C.  H.  Lane 586  1-24 

Plant  specimens,  mounting  for  study  of  agricultitre,  directions 586  4-9 

Planting — 

cotton.  Salt  River  Valley 577  4 

spring,  condition.  May  1,  1914 598  7, 17 

Plowing,  spring,  condition,  May  1 598  7, 17 

Polecat.  See  Skunk;  Skunks. 

Polenta,  Italian  dish  from  corn,  importance  in  dietary,  note 581  3,  5 

Poles — 

chestnut,  cutting,  marketing,  demand,  etc 582  9-12 

dead  chestnut,  value,  etc 582  3 

Porumb,  name  for  corn  in  Roumania,  importance,  note 581  3,  5 

Potato  crops,  world’s,  acreage  and  production,  1910-1912,  by  coun- 
tries  581  23-25 

Poultry — 

destruction  by  rodents,  remarks 587  8-9 

raising,  hatching  hens’  eggs,  natural  and  artificial  methods, 

bulletin  by  Harry  M.  Lamon 585  1-16 

Prairie — 

grasses,  hay  crops  for  South,  note 580  4 

lands,  black,  grasses,  natural,  and  other,  suitable  for  beef  pro- 
duction   580  2 

Preservative,  water  glass  for  eggs,  use 594  4 

Prices,  farm  products,  trend,  April  1,  1914 590  12-20 


INDEX. 


13 

Farmers’ 

Bulletin  No.  Page. 

Rabild,  Helmer,  a.  K.  Risser,  and  K.  E.  Parks,  bulletin  on 

“ Homemade  silos” 589  1-47 

Rack,  silage  hauling,  construction 578  7 

Rambouillet  sheep — 

breeders’ associations,  addresses  of  secretaries 576  16 

description,  points  of  value,  etc 576  15-16 

Rams,  community  ownership,  suggestions 576  2 

Range  lands,  western,  insufficient  water  supply 592  1 

Ranges — 

watering  places,  natural,  improvement,  etc * 592  4-9 

western,  need  of  water  supply 592  1-2 

Rape — 

and  clover,  hog  pasture,  management 599  19-20 

hog  pasture — 

in  rows  and  in  mixtures,  value 599  12-13 

value,  management 599  18-19 

Ration,  fattening  calves  for  market 580  8 

Rations — 

dairy  cows 578  15-16 

hog,  suitable  for  various  conditions 599  4-5 

silage  as  base,  for  cattle 578  21-22 

Rats,  destruction  by  domesticated  skunks 587  11-12 

Reservoirs — 

construction  in  range  country,  water  supply  for  stock 592  10-15 

construction  for  water  supply  for  range  stock 592  18-19 

Red  clover,  hay  crop  for  South,  note 580  4 

Red  Polled  cattle,  characteristics,  adaptability  to  South,  etc 580  18-19 

Risser,  A.  K.,  Helmer  Rabild,  and  K.  E.  Parks,  bulletin  on 

“Homemade  silos” 589  1-47 

“Rivers”  cotton,  application  of  term 591  16 

Road  drag — 

history,  and  value 597  1 

use,  bulletin  by  A.  C.  Morgan  and  H.  C.  Parman 597  1-15 

Roads — 

drag,  maintenance,  cost 597  12-14 

earth — 

essential  features 597  10-12 

use  of  drags 597  1-12 

hard  surfaced,  mileage  in  United  States 597  1 

public,  mileage  in  United  States 597  1 

Rodent,  mole,  eastern  United  States 583  1-10 

Rodents,  destruction  by  skunks 587  11-12 

Rommel,  George  M.,  article  on  “Silage  for  horses” 578  17-19 

Romney  Marsh  sheep — 

breeders’  association,  address  of  secretary 576  13 

description,  points  of  value,  etc 576  12-13 

Root  crops,  winter  feed  for  hogs 599  16,  22-23 

Rotation,  crop,  wheat  growing  in  Eastern  United  States 596  5-6 

acreage,  condition,  prices,  etc..  May  1,  1913,  1914,  by  States 598  15 

condition  and  outlook.  May  1,  1914 598  6 

crop,  world’s,  1911-1913,  by  countries 581  21-23 

Rye  grass,  English,  hog  pasture,  value,  management 599  14 

Sand,  selection  for  concrete 589  21 

Scalopus  aquations.  See  Mole,  common. 

Scheffer,  Theo.  H.,  bulletin  on  “The  common  mole  of  the  Eastern 

United  States” ‘ 583  1-10 

Seed  bed,  cotton,  preparation  for  irrigation 577  4 

Seed  corn,  preparation  for  planting 584  4-5 

Seeds,  collection  and  preservation,  for  study  of  agriculture,  direc- 
tions  586  9-17 

Seeps,  development  for  watering  places  for  range  stock 592  8 

Serum,  antihog-cholera,  use,  directions,  cautions,  etc 590  3-7 

Shaw,  E.  L.,  article  on  “Silage  for  sheep” 578  24 


14 


FARMERS  BULLETINS^  XOS.  576-600. 


Farmers’ 

Sheep — Bulletin  No. 

breeds  for  farm,  bulletin  by  F.  R.  Marshall 576 

classes,  characteristics,  and  descriptions  of  types,  etc 576 

crossbreeding,  suggestions 576 

farming,  suggestions,  cooperation,  etc 576 

feeding  silage 578 

fine-wool  class,  characteristics  and  value  of  types 576 

long-wool  class,  characteristics  and  value  of  types 576 

losses,  1913 590 

middle-wool  class,  characteristics  and  value  of  types 576 

water  requirements, ‘daily 592 

Shipping — 

eggs,  by  parcel  post,  bulletin 594 

skunks,  management 587 

Shingles,  chestnut,  durability,  disadvantages,  prices 582 

Shorthorn  cattle,  characteristics,  adaptability  to  South,  recommen- 
dations  580 

Shropshire  sheep — 

breeders’  association,  address  of  secretary 576 

description,  points  of  value,  etc 576 

Silage — 

advantages  as  a feed 578 

composition  of  different  kinds 578 

corn — 

feed  for  fattening  cattle,  experiments 580 

hauling  to  cutter,  management 578 

value  for  fattening  calves 580 

cost 578 

cost  of  harvesting  and  filling  silo 578 

covering  in  silo 578 

crops — 

preparation,  nutritive  value,  etc 578 

suitable  in  South 580 

cutting,  management 578 

depth  for  given  capacity  and  diameter 589 

feed — 

for  dairy  cows,  advantages 578 

for  horses 578 

for  sheep 578 

feeding  value,  rations,  etc 578 

frozen — 

danger  to  horses  and  mules 578 

feeding 578 

loss  of  food  material  in  silo 578 

making  and  feeding,  bulletin  by  T.  E.  Woodward 578 

moldy,  danger  to  horses  and  mules 578 

packing  in  silo,  watering,  etc 578 

rack,  construction 578 

supplementary  feeds 578 

value  to  stock  farmer,  discussion 578 

winter  feed  for  cattle 588 

Silo — 

capacity,  relation  to  size  of  herd  for  winter  and  summer  feeding, 

tables 589 

concrete — 

advantages,  construction,  cost,  etc 589 

construction,  illustrations,  etc 589 

foundation,  construction 589 

doors,  arrangement,  construction,  etc 589 

filling,  cost 578 

location,  suggestions 489 

modified  Wisconsin,  advantages,  construction,  cost,  etc 589 

stave,  advantages,  construction,  cost,  etc 589 


Page. 

1-16 

3-16 

16 

1-2 

24 

3, 13-16 
3, 10-13 

7 

3-10 

2-3 

1-20 

20 

20-21 

16 

5 

4-5 

1-2 

13-14 

10-11 

6-7 

8 

12- 13 
11-13 

11 

2-12 

4 

7,9 

7 

2 

17-19 

24 

13- 17 

18 

16- 17 
13 

1-24 

17- 18 
10-12 

7 

14-15, 16 
23 

14- 15 


5-6 

2,3 

9-30 

31-32 

8-9 

11-13 

4-5 

3 

2,  3,  30-43 


INDEX. 


Silos—  Bulleti 

construction,  requirements 

history,  increase  in  use,  etc.,  remarks 

homemade,  bulletin  by  Helmer  Babild,  A.  K.  Risser,  and  H,  E. 

Parks 

types,  descriptions,  advantages,  cost,  etc 

Skins,  skunk,  grades,  effect  of  climate  on  pelage,  etc 

Skunk — 


farming — 


Skunks — 


North  American- 


scent  sacs- 


Soil— 


Hagerstown  loam,  value  for  wheat  growing,  description. 


Sorghum — 

feed  and  silage  crop  of  South,  importance 

fodder,  feed  for  fattening  steers,  comparison  with  cotton-seed 

hulls 

Sorghums— 


South- 


Southdown  sheep- 


Soy  beans — 


Springs — 


15 

)rs’ 

No. 

Page. 

589 

4-9 

589 

1 

589 

1-47 

589 

2-4 

587 

2-5 

587 

10-12 

587 

10-13 

587 

20 

587 

16-22 

587 

15 

587 

14-15 

587 

6-7 

587 

6 

587 

18-19 

587 

7 

587 

14-15 

587 

11-12 

587 

7-12 

587  . 

5-6 

587 

1-22 

587 

2-5 

587 

2-5 

587 

1 

587 

13-14 

587 

16-22 

587 

* 20 

587 

19-20 

587 

20-22 

587 

11-12 

587 

15-16 

581 

34-38 

588 

12 

596 

2 

579 

7-9 

579 

5-6 

596 

2-3 

580 

4 

580 

12 

584 

7 

599 

24 

578 

4-5 

580 

1-20 

580 

1-2 

576 

4 

576 

3-4 

578 

5 

580 

4 

597 

2-5 

592 

6 

592 

7-8 

592 

4-8 

16 


FARMERS^  BULLETINS^  NOS.  576-GOO. 


Farmers’ 

Bulletin  No.  Page. 

Squash,  winter  feed  for  hogs,  value,  management 599  15 

Stave  silo — 

advantages,  construction,  cost,  etc 589  2,3 

construction,  directions,  illustrations,  etc 589  30-43 

Staves,  silo  building,  lumber  suitable,  requirements,  etc 589  33-37 

Steers.  See  Cattle. 

Stockers,  feeding  silage 578  20 

Stock-watering  places  on  western  grazing  lands,  bulletin  by  Will  C. 

Barnes 592  1-27 

Stover,  corn,  fattening  steers,  comparison  with  cottonseed  hulls. . . 580  11-12 

Straw — 

flax,  utilization 581  26-27 

wheat,  value  as  fertilizer,  composition,  etc 596  12 

Stubble,  wheat,  pasture  for  hogs,  value,  experiments 599  20 

Stump-boring  outfit,  operation,  cost,  tests,  etc 600  1-5 

Stumps — 

tap-rooted,  boring  for  blasting,  outfit 600  1-5 

uprooting  by  use  of  explosives,  outfit,  etc 600  1-5 

Suffolk  sheep,  note 576  10 

Sugar — 

beet,  production,  1911-1913,  per  acre  and  per  factory 598  9-11 

crop,  Louisiana,  1913 590  11-12 

production,  Hawaii,  campaigns,  1911-1914 598  12 

supply,  sources,  domestic  production,  etc,  1911-1913 598  11-12 

Swamps,  improvement  for  watering  places  for  range  stock 592  8 

Tannin  extract,  use  of  chestnut  timber,  tannin  content,  prices,  etc . 582  21-22 

Teachers,  instruction  for  collection  and  preservation  of  plants  for 

use  in  study  of  agriculture,  bulletin 586  1-24 

Tenant  farming,  cause  of  decrease  in  cattle-feeding  business 588  2 

Tester,  egg,  construction,  value 585  14 

“Texas”  cotton,  grade  characteristics 591  16 

Texas  fever  tick,  eradication,  work  of  Government 580  14 

Thompson,  Harry,  bulletin  on  “An  outfit  for  boring  tap-rooted 

stumps  for  blasting  ” 600  1-5 

Thrashing,  wheat,  note : 596  12 

Tick  eradication,  work  of  Government 580  14 

Timber — 

chestnut,  killed  by  bark  disease,  uses,  bulletin  by  J.  C.  Nellis.  582  1-24 

dead  chestnut,  strength,  comparison  with  green-cut  timber 582  2 

Tobacco — 

growing,  use  of  insecticide,  necessity  and  advantages 595  1-2 

hornworm,  destruction,  use  of  arsenate  of  lead,  dark-tobacco  dis- 
trict, bulletin  by  A.  C.  Morgan  and  D.  C.  Barman 595  1-8 

hornworms,  distribution  in  United  States,  maps 595  1 

insecticide,  use  of  Paris  green,  injuries 595  2 

worming,  cost  per  acre 595  2 

Tortilla,  food  from  parched  corn,  Mexico,  note 581  2,  5 

Trails,  construction  to  inaccessible  watering  places,  management, 

caution,  etc 592  9 

Trap,  skunk,  construction 587  20 

Trapping,  skunk,  management 587  15-16 

Traps,  mole,  types,  management,  etc 583  7-9 

Trough — 

cement,  construction,  cost,  advantages  for  western  range  stock.  592  23 

log,  construction,  cost,  etc 592  20 

metal,  cost,  advantages  for  western  range  stock 595  22 

plank,  construction,  cost,  etc _ - 592  20-21 

Troughs,  construction  and  cost  of  different  kinds,  watering  places 

for  range  stock 592  20-25 

Tunis  sheep- 

breeders’  association,  address  of  secretary 576  10 

description,  points  of  value,  etc 576  10 

Turkey  eggs,  incubation  period 585  3 

Upland  cotton,  grade  characteristics 591  13 


INDEX. 


17 

Farmers’ 

Bulletin  No.  Page. 


Veal,  demand,  increase,  effect  on  price  of  stocker  and  feeder  cattle.  588  5 

Velvet  beans,  forage  crop  for  South,  value 580  4 

Vetch,  hog  pasture,  alone  and  in  mixtures,  value 599  13-14 

Wages,  farm  labor,  different  sections,  changes,  detailed  statements, 

etc 584  7-9,16-19 

Ward,  W.  F.— 

and  Dan  T.  Gray,  bulletin  on  “Beef  production  in  the  South”  580  1-20 

and  J.  S.  Cotton,  bulletin  on  “Economical  cattle  feeding  in  the 

corn  belt” 588  1-19 

article  on  “Silage  for  beef  cattle” 578  19-23 

Water  glass,  use  for  preserving  eggs,  directions 594  4 

Watering  places — 

artificial,  for  range  stock 592  9-25 

range  lands,  location  notes 592  3-4 

Weasels,  destruction  of  poultry,  method 587  8 

Wells— 

raising  water  for  stock  in  range  country,  methods 592  17-18 

water  supply  for  stock  in  range  countries,  sinking,  management, 

etc 592  15-18 

Westgate,  J.  M.,  bulletin  on  “Crimson  clover:  Utilization” 579  1-10 

Wheat — 

cultivation 596  10 

farm  supplies,  accuracy  of  estimates 584  2-3 

fed  to  live  stock 598  3-4 

foreign,  1914,  outlook 598  4-6 

growing — 

experiments  at  Ohio  agricultural  experiment  farm,  results. . 596  4 

fertilizers  suitable 596  3-5 

pasturing  in  fall,  management,  eaution 596  10 

preparation  of  land  and  seed,  sowing,  etc 596  8-10 

rotation  systems.  Eastern  United  States 596  5-6 

harvesting 596  10-12 

hogging  off,  management 599  7 

pasture  for  hogs 599  24 

rotation  crop  with  corn,  oats,  and  clover,  treatment,  yield,  etc.. 


seed,  preparation  for  spring  planting 584  6 

soils,  descriptions 596  2-3 

stubble,  pasture  for  hogs,  value,  experiments 599  20 

unthrashed,  winter  feed  for  hogs,  advantages,  value 599  23 

use  as  cover  crop,  note 596  6 

use  as  feed  for  stock,  estimates,  1913-14 598  4 

use  as  nurse  crop,  management 596  6 

value  for  hogging  off 599  14 

winter — 

acreage,  condition,  prices,  etc..  May  1, 1913, 1914,  by  States,  598  15 

condition  and  forecast  May  1,  1914 598  1-3 

culture  in  the  Eastern  United  States,  bulletin  by  Clyde  E. 

Leighty 596  1-12 

forecast,  April,  1914 590  10 

humid  district,  map 596  1 

summer  pasture  for  hogs,  value,  management . 599  18 

Windmills,  use  in  raising  water  from  wells  and  canyons  in  range 

countries 592  17-18 

Winter — 

feeding  cattle,  management 588  14-15 

wheat — 

acreage,  condition,  prices,  etc..  May  1, 1913,  1914,  by  States.  598  15 

condition  and  forecast.  May  1,  1914 598  1-3 

culture  in  the  Eastern  United  States,  bulletin 596  l-]  2 

forecast,  April,  1914 590  10 

humid  district,  map 596  1 

summer  pasture  for  hogs,  value,  management 599  18 


18 


FARMERS^  BULLETINS^  NOS.  576-COO. 


Farmers’ 

Wisconsin  silo — Bulletin  No. 

modified,  advantages,  construction,  cost,  etc 589 

modified,  construction,  directions,  illustrations,  etc 589 

Wood  specimens,  preparation  and  preservation  for  study  of  agricul- 
ture  586 

Woodward,  T.  E.,  article  on  “Making  and  feeding  silage” 578 

Worming  tobacco,  cost  per  acre 595 

Yearlings,  cost  of  raising,  in  South,  profits,  etc.,  experiments 580 


Page. 

3 

43-47 

18-20 

1-17 

2 

6 


O 


